I 



Ifi 



wm 



m 



1 



RBI 



m 
m 



m 



I 



Wm 



IF 









is 



1 



IKmi 



■9 



111 



ffflfflmi 



ffl 



L 



Hi 



ffisn 



iiiffli 

mm 






Jtf 




' 



a v 1 










> 

y 'V - 



o o 










\° °«. 



'oo N 



V 




















a O ? 






^ V* 













•-3 






.*5 -U. 












/ 












\ ^. 



> 


















^ 






V* 









# v .' 



-ft. ^ 










; 









W 




©wa^s'^s 'wnnsusARo 



AN 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR; 



COMPREHENDING 



THE PRINCIPLES AND RULES 



OF THE 



LANGUAGE, 



ILLUSTRATED BY APPROPRIATE EXERCISES 



ON THE BASIS OF MURRAY. 



BY Je'SWETT, JR., A.M., 

Teacher of Moral Scienee and English Literature, and Lecturer on 
Geology, in the .New-England Seminary, Windsor, Vt. 



H- 



WINDSOR, VT. 

PUBLISHED BY JOSIAH SWETT, JR. 
Sold toy the Claremont Manufacturing Co., Claremoiit, JNMI • 

1843. 



V l 



^ 






Entered according to the act of Congress, in the year 1842, 

By Josiah Swett, Jr., 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Vermont. 



PRESS OF BISHOP & TRACY. 



PREFACE. 



The English Grammar of Lindley Murray* has ever been regarded as a work 
of distinguished merit. For more than forty years has it had a reputation and 
circulation, unequaled in the history of grammars. These it has justly enjoyed. 
For, a work compiled from the grammars and grammatical studies of Karris, John- 
son, Lowth, Priestly, Beattie, Sheriden, Walker, Coote, Blair, Campbell and 
Webster f — all men of sound erudition, and intimately versed in the principles and 
structure of the English language — by a person so well prepared for the undertak- 
ing as Mr. Murray, so well read, and so competent for selection, arrangement, 
or even composition ; such a work, it is affirmed, could not well fail to embrace 
the true principles of the language, and to possess far more than ordinary excellence. 

Mr. Murray regarded himself, as may be seen by his Prefaces, only as a Com- 
piler. The language of his work is, in a great measure, the language of Lowth 
and the other grammarians quoted above, for which no more than general credit 
is given in the fore part of the volume. As Murray made no scruples in copying 
from the works of others ; so more modern compilers have made no scruples in 
copying from his work. The language of his grammar seems, indeed, to have been 
regarded, and not without reason, as common property, f and all have used it, alter- 
ed or amended it, as if it were their own. .Nor is there, since the true authors 
are unknown, any injustice or impolicy in this course. On the contrary, there 
may be an advantage ; for if the language be clear, precise and correct, it is bet- 
ter that it continue still to be used, than that it be exchanged for that less definite 
and less perfect. 

From the foregoing remarks may be gathered the reasons for constructing the 
following volume on the basis of Murray's Grammar, as it purports to be on the 
title page. Though the chief part of it has been re-written, and the whole pre- 
pared with much care and labor, the subscriber lays no claim to its being consid- 
ered an original work ; but would rather regard it, in an enlarged sense, as but a 
revision of Murray's full work in two volumes, and himself as having made those 
changes only which necessity and experience dictated, and which Mr Murray 
himself would sanction, were he alive to witness them. Every teacher of any 
experience, though conscious of the excellencies of Murray's over every other 
English grammar, has neverthless, seen in it and admitted great faults, and though 
he has done it reluctantly, these have compelled him, in some instances, to lay it 
aside, and adopt others of less merit, though more correct in some of their essen- 
tial parts. 

The reason for entering upon the preparation of this work, is found in the fact 
of there being no grammar extant, adapted to the use of teachers and students — 
none without great and radical errors, and in some instances, an entire inadapt- 
edness to the wants of schools. This fact is proved not only by an examination 
of the grammars extant themselves, though it is cheerfully confessed that some 
of them have much merit ; but also from the almost universal complaint of teach- 
ers on the subject : and to these just complaints, the subscriber can add his own 

* Mr. Murray was a native of this country. He was born in New Jersey, where 
he spent the early part of his life, 
t These are the men from whose works Mi" Murray says his own was compiled. 



IV PREFACE. 

testimony, based on ten year's experience as a teacher, that he has been able, du- 
ring that time, to find no grammar adapted to his wants, or fitted to make its study 
pleasant and successful to the student. His own wants were perhaps the more 
immediate cause ot the undertaking. 

The objects had in view in the compilation of this volume, were to embrace the 
true principles of the English language in a form, not so concise as to fail of im- 
parting a full and explicit understanding of them, nor so extended as to weary 
and confuse— to express them in language clear, precise and definite, without any 
effort to simplicity ,• for this has been the bane of many school books and a suf- 
ficient objection against them— to illustrate and enforce them by appropriate re- 
marks and well chosen exercises— to give the work a logical and clear arrange- 
ment j and, finally, to make the whole a complete and correct system of English 
Grammar, perfectly adapted to the use of schools and academies. How far these 
objects have been accomplished, it is for the public to judge. Other less general 
objects have been aimed at ; and of these, one of the chief was to make its orthog- 
raphy and etymology harmonize with those of the standard dictionary of our lan- 
guage : to wit, Webster's. In this attempt the subscriber feel3 concious he has 
suceeded so far as success is desirable, and it will be regarded by all, he believes, 
as a most valuable improvement. 

A fuller view of the work, compared with the one on which it is based, 
will be gained from the following brief particulars : 

1. The whole work is divided into distinct sections, each having in general 
its appropriate head, both for a more logical arrangement, and for convenience 
of reference. 

2. Those parts of grammar designed for reference, or for the study of pupils 
somewhat advanced in the science, as the rules of orthography, derivation, &c, 
are separated from the body of the work and placed in an Appendix by themselves. 

3. The Article is not allowed as a part of speech, bat the words of this class 
are placed among the adjectives, from which they should never have been sepa- 
rated. — See reasons in full for this change, on pp. 18, 31 and 32. 

4. A section is added on the limitation of nouns, and the neuter gender i3 dis- 
carded as having no warrant for the distinction to which it alludes in the English 
language. — See note on page 20th, and the word gender in the Glossary. 

5. The verbs are more naturally and logically classified ; the neuter is called the 
inactive ; some incongruous terms in the tenses are changed for others more clear 
and expressive ; the conjugations are more distinctly laid down, and forms given 
for the conjugation of verbs interrogatively, negatively, and interrogatively and 
negatively combined. 

(3. A new chapter (chap. 1.) is added on Syntax, on a new and greatly im- 
proved plan, which in connection with Chapter II, embracing all of Murray's, 
(including the exercises in false Syntax, contained in his second octavo volume,) 
thoroughly revised, forms, it is believed, a more complete and better system of 
Syntax than has ever before been offered to the public. 

7. Murray's article on Versification, always deemed defective and obscure, 
has been exchanged for another, at once complete and intelligible, drawn up by 
that most accurate and critical scholar in this department of grammatical knowl- 
edge, the late Judge Trumbull, of Connecticut. 

8. The Appendix contains three sections on the Prefixes and Suffixes of the 
English language, prepared with great care from the best sources. It is believed 
they will be found greatly to enhance the value of the work. 

9. Lastly, a Glossary of grammatical technical terms is added at the end of the 
volume. This is regarded as a valuable appendage ; inasmuch as a correct and 
full understanding of the technical terms of any science is of the highest impor- 
tance towards attaining a knowledge of that science. It should be frequently and 
carefully consulted. 

By means of two kinds of type a large amount of matter has been embraced in 
this volume, without inordinately swelling its size. No part of Grammar is omit- 
ted, and yet every part is full. 

JSo questions have been introduced into the work for the examination of pupils 
— none were deemed requisite. Written questions for text books are believed to 
be injurious on several accounts. First, they tend to promote a partial and con- 
sequently superficial examination of the text ; inasmuch as the student in search- 
ing to find the answers to such questions, fails to obtain a correct, thorough and 
connected view of the whole subject. Secondly, they tend to foster habits of in- 
dolence on the part of teachers, who having questions ready made for their use, 
neglect to study the text themselves, and are thus often incapable of being, in any 
respect, beneficial to the pupil. Thirdly, they tend to make lessons monotonous 



PREFACE. V 

and tiresome, by depriving them of novelty and leaving them devoid of interest; 
and fourthly, they have the effect to narrow down, or bigot the mind, by confin- 
ing it to set and limited trains of thought, whereas its free expansion should be 
encouraged by eliciting thought in various channels running from the subject, by 
extempore questions and verbal remarks. Besides all this, every intelligent teach- 
er feels that he is quite as well able to adapt questions to his pupils of various 
ages, and every variety of attainment and understanding, as the author or com- 
piler of a book, sitting in his study ; and he can but feel, and often does, that an 
insult is offered to his intelligence and judgement, when a book is put into his 
hands for use, with a large portion of every page occupied by questions, often 
most illy adapted to any class for instruction. 

Neither has any key to the exercises in false saytax been appended to the work. 
For if the pupil studies under a teacher, as he most likely will do, he will find in 
Jiim, if intelligent, his best key -; or if he has sufficient maturity of mind to pursue 
grammar without the teacher's aid, he will be able by proper diligence and exer- 
tion, to understand the corrections which are to be made in the sentences of false 
■construction, from the rules and observations immediately preceding them. 
A key for the use of teachers is not far from being a burlesk on their intellectual 
capacities and common sense, and is well calculated to dwarf the mind, by re- 
moving from it the occasion and necessity for mental exertion. 

In preparing this volume, a variety of grammars have been consulted. From 
-only one or two, however, has any thing valuable been drawn. A few extracts 
have been made from the grammar of Dr. N. Webster, for which credit is given 
in its proper place. The Rules for Spelling, embraced in the Appendix, are also 
from his pen. The analysis of sentences contained in chapter first on Syntax, is 
chiefly from the Latin Grammar of Andrews and Stoddard. In this connection 
the undersigned embraces with pleasure the opportunity to express his acknow- 
ledgments to the Rev. W. D. Wilson, from whom he has derived some valuable 
suggestions, in various parts of the volume. 

As the subscriber is only desirous that his work shall answer the purpose of its 
-design, and as he is not so vain as to suppose it free from errors, or even many de- 
fects ; those teachers and others who may do him the honor to examine it, will con- 
fer a great obligation by favoring him with their critical remarks, or any sugges- 
tions they may think proper to communicate ; and they will still more oblige, by 
doing this in sufficient season, to allow him to avail himself of them for a second 
edition, should it be called for. 

That this volume may be the instrument of advancing and cheering the pro- 
gress of the student in his efforts for the attainment of a science, at once deeply 
intellectual, extensively practical, and when rightly pursued, highly interesting, 
is the earnest desire of the compiler; and he will only add the request in justice 
to himself, that those into whose hands it may fall, will suspend their prejudices 
and judgment till they have carefully examined its pages. 

J. SWETT, Jr. 

New England Seminary , ) 

Windsor, Vt n Sept. 17, 1842. } 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 
Grammar, definition and di- 
vision of the subject 7 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 
Letters, Chapter I. 9 
Forms of the letters, 10 
Classes of letters, 11 
Classes of Consonants. 11 
Diphthongs and Triphthongs, 11 
Articulate sounds, 11 
Syllables, Chap. II. 13 
Words, Chap. III. 13 
Rules for Spelling, 14 

ETYMOLOGY. 
Parts of Speech, Chap. I. 15 
Nouns, Chap. II. 17 
Limitation of Nouns, 18 
Gender, 20 
Modes of distinguishing Gen- 
der, 21 
Number, 23 
Person, 26 
Case, 27 
Declension of Nouns, 28 
Adjectives, Chap. III. 29 
Degrees of Comparison, 29 
Regular Comparison, 30 
Irregular Comparison, 30 
Pronouns, Chap. IV. 33 
Personal Pronouns, 34 
Compound Personal Pro- 
nouns, 37 
Relative Pronouns, 37 
Adjective Pronouns, 40 
Verbs, Chap. V. 42 
Classification of Verbs, 42 
Number and person of Verbs, 44 
Moods, or Modes, 45 
Tenses, 47 
Participles, 50 
Conjugation of Verbs, 52 
Conjugation of To have, 53 
Conjugation of To be, and To 

love, 57 

Other forms of Conjugation, 66 

Interrogative form, 66 

Negative form, 67 
Interrogative and negative 

form, 68 



Synopsis with thou, 
Irregular Verbs, 
Defective Verbs, 
Adverbs, Chap. VI. 
Classes of Adverbs, 



Page. 
69 
69 
73 
73 
74 



Comparison of Adverbs, 75 

Prepositions, Chap. VII. 76 

Conjunctions, Chap. VII. 78 

Interjections, Chap. VIII. 80 

SYNTAX. 
Syntax in General Chap. I. 82 

Sentences, 82 

Subject and Predicate, 83 

Rules of Syntax, 84 

Parsing, 90 

Example parsed, 90 

Examples for Parsing, 92 
Syntax in Particular, 

Chap. II. 96 

Punctuation, Chap. III. 129 

Comma, 130 

Semicolon, 135 

Colon, 135 

Period, 136 

Dash, 137 

Interrogation Point, 137 

Exclamation Point, 137 

Other marks, 138 

Capital Letters, 140 

PROSODY. 

Pronunciation, Chap. I. 143 

Accent, 143 

Quantity, 144 

Emphasis, 145 

Tones, 145 

Pauses, 146 

Versification, Chap. II. 148 

Poetical Feet, " 148 

Poetical Pauses, 151 

Expression, 154 

Reading Verse, 157 

APPENDIX. 

Sounds of the Letters, 159 

Rules for Spelling, 166 

Derivation, 169 

Prefixes, 171 

Suffixes, 174 

Glossary, 177 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



<§>1. Grammar* is the science of Language. 

English Grammar teaches how to speak and write 
the English Language correctly. 

Grammar may be considered as consisting of two species, Universal 
and Particular. Universal Grammar treats of the principles which are 
common to all languages. Particular Grammar treats of the principles 
which pertain to a particular language, or of the application of general 
principles to a particular language, modifying them according to the genius 
of that tongue, and the established practice of the best writers and speak- 
ers by whom it is used. 

Language, in the proper sense of the word, is that 
system of signs, whether of written words or articulate 
sounds, by which we express our ideas and their vari- 
ous relations. 

The power of speech is one of the distinguishing characters of our 
nature 5 none of the inferior animals being in any degree possessed of it : 
for we must not call by the name of speech that imitation of human articu- 
late voice, of which parrots and some other birds are capable. 

That some inferior animals should be able to mimic human articulation, 
will not seem wonderful, when we recollect that even by machines the 
sounds of certain words have been expressed. But that the parrot should 
annex thought to the word he utters, is scarcely more probable than that 
the machine should do so. Rogue and knave are in every parrot's mouth ; 
but the ideas they stand for are incomprehensible by any other beings than 
those endowed with reason and a moral sense. 

* For the derivation, and literal and technical meaning of this and all 
other grammatical terms in this work, the pupil is referred to the Glos- 
sary at the end of the volume. 

A 



8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Jt is probable that there is among irrational animals something, which, 
by figure, we may call language, as the instinctive economy of bees is figu- 
ratively called government. But animal voices have no analogy with 
human speech. For, first, men speak by art and imitation ; whereas the 
voices in question are wholly instinctive. Secondly, the voices of brute 
animals are not resolvable into distinct elementary sounds, like those of 
men; nor are they susceptible of that variety which would be necessary 
for the communication of a very few sentiments; and furthermore, the 
young of beasts, previous to instruction, comprehend their meaning, as well 
as the old ones. Thirdly, these voices seem intended by nature to 
express, not distinct ideas, or trains of thought, but certain feelings only 5 
in which, as in all other respects, they are analogous, not to our speaking, 
but to our weeping, laughing, groaning, screaming, and the like. 

The orang-outang has all the organs of voice, and a brain, like those of 
man, and yet the animal cannot articulate : it wants a rational soul. 

The number of living languages and dialects is about two thousand. 

Grammar is divided into four parts, namely : Or- 
thography, Etymology, Syntax and Prosody. 

Orthography treats of the form and sound of letters, 
the combination of the letters into syllables, and sylla- 
bles into words. 

Etymology treats of the different classes of words, of 
their various modifications, and their derivations. 

Syntax treats of the union and right order of words 
in the formation of a sentence, and their dependence 
upon one another. 

Prosody treats of the just pronunciation of words, 
the poetical construction of sentences, and punctuation. 



PART I. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

$2. Orthography treats of the form and sound 
of letters, the combination of the letters into syllables, 
and of syllables into words. 



CHAPTER I. 



OF LETTERS. 



§3. A letter is a character used in writing or printing, 
to represent an articulate sound. It is the first principle or 
least part of a word. 

Letters, we are told, were first introduced into Greece, 1453 years before 
the Christian era, by Cadmus, a Phoenician. How long they had been used 
in Phoenicia previous to that time, is not known. The alphabet of Cad- 
mus consisted of 16 letters : the Greeks afterwards added 8 others. 

The letters in the English language, called the English 
Alphabet 9 are twenty-six in number. 



10 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



The following is a 


list of the R 


'nglis 


ih charac 


ters : — 






Roman. 


Iul 


ic. 


OldE; 


Cap. 


Small. 


Cap. 


Small. 


Cap. 


A 


a 


A 


a 


m 


B 


b 


B 


b 


JS 


c 


c 


C 


c 


<£ 


D 


d 


D 


d 


m 


E 


e 


E 


e 


m 


F 


f 


F 


f 


& 


G 


g 


G 


g 


<2ff 


H 


h 


H 


h 


P? 


I 


i 


I 


i 


it 


J 


J 


J 


J 


3 


K 


k 


K 


k 


It 


L 


1 


L 


I 


2L 


M 


m 


M 


m 


m 


N 


n 


N 


n 


TX 


O 





O 





<© 


P 


P 


P 


P 


P 


a 


q 


Q 


q 


<& 


R 


r 


R 


r 


m 


s 


s 


s 


s 


«s 


T 


t 


T 


t 


K 


U 


u 


U 


u 


m 


V 


V 


V 


V 


-V 


W 


w 


w 


w 


wm 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


Y 


y 


Y 


y 


sr 


Z 


z 


z 


% 


% 



the Roman, Italic, and Old 



Small. 

a 

a 

t 
tr 
t 
t 

i 

t 

J 

ft 

I 

m 

n 

o 

9 

a 

v 

n 

t 

u 

u 

iu 

V 

2 

? 



Name. 

ai 

bee 

see 

dee 

ee 

ef 
jee 
aitch 
i or eye 

3 a V 
kay 

el 

em 

en 

o 

pee 

cue 

ar 

ess 

tee 

u or you 

vee 

double u 

elcs 

wy 

zee 



The Hebrew alphabet contains but twenty-two letters ; the Greek and 
Latin have each twenty-four, and the French has twenty-five. 

Forms of the Letters. 

§4. The letters have each two forms, by which they are 
distinguished ; viz. that of capitals and that of small letters. 

Capitals are used for the sake of distinction or eminence; 
as for the titles of books, headings of chapters, and begin- 
ning of proper names. Small letters constitute the body of 
every work. 

The Roman characters are generally employed ; some- 
times the Italic, and occasionally the Old English. Very 
emphatic words are usually written in Italic characters. 



LETTERS THEIR DIFFERENT CLASSES. 11 

Classes of Letters. 

§5. Letters are divided into Voivels and Consonants. 

A Vowel is an articulate sound, that can be perfectly 
uttered by itself: as a, e t o; which are formed without the 
help of any other sound. 

A Consonant is an articulate sound, which cannot be 
perfectly utterea without the help of a vowel : as 6, d,f, I; 
which require vowels to express them fully. 

The vowels are, a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. 

IF and y are consonants when they begin a word or syl- 
lable ; but in every other situation they are vowels. 

Classes of Consonants. 

§6. Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels. 

The mutes cannot be sounded at ally without the aid of 
a vowel. They are 6, p, t, d, k, and c and g hard. 

The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of themselves. 
They are/, 7, m t n, r f v, s, z, z, and c and g soft. 

Four of the semi-vowels, namely, I, m, n t r, are also dis- 
tinguished by the name of liquids, from their readily uni- 
ting with other consonants, and flowing, as it were, into 
their sounds. 

Of Diphthongs and Triphthongs. 

§7. A diphthong is the union of two vowels, pronounced 
by a simple impulse of the voice ; as ea in beat, ou in sound. 

A triphthong is the union of three vowels, pronounced in 
like manner; as, eau in beau, tew in view. 

A proper diphthong is that in which both the vowels are 
sounded ; as, oi in voice, ou in ounce. 

An improper diphthong has but one of the vowels sound- 
ed ; as, ea in eagle, oa in boat. 

A proper triphthong is that in which all the vowels are 
sounded ; as, uoy in buoy. 

An improper triphthong is that in which but one or two 
of the vowels are sounded; as, eau in beauty, iou in anx- 
ious. 

Of Articulate Sounds, — Their Nature and Formation. 

§8. An articulate sound is the sound of the human 
voice, formed by the organs of speech. 
A 2 



12 ORTHOGRAPHY. 



led by 
I may 
ire of 



'A concise account of the origin and formation of the sounds emitted 
the human voice, may perhaps not improperly be here introduced. It m^ 
gratify the ingenious student, and serve to explain more fully the nature of 
articulation. 

Human voice is air sent out from the lungs, and so agitated or modified 
in its passage through the windpipe and larynx, as to become distinctly au- 
dible. The windpipe is that tube, which on touching the forepart of our 
throat externally, we feel hard and uneven. It conveys air into the lungs 
for the purpose of breathing and speech. The top or upper part of the 
windpipe is called the larynx, consisting of four or five cartilages, that 
may be expanded or brought together, by the action of certain muscles 
which operate all at the same time. In the middle of the larynx there is a 
small opening, called the glottis, through which the breath and voice are 
conveyed. This opening is not wider than one tenth of an inch ; and, there- 
fore, the breath transmitted through it from the lungs, must pass with con- 
siderable velocity. The voice thus formed, is strengthed and softened by 
a reverberation from the palate and other hollow places in the inside of the 
mouth and nostrils; and as these are better or worse shaped for this rever- 
beration, the voice is said to be more or less agreeable . 

Speech is made up of articulate voices; and what we call articulation, 
is performed, not by the lungs, windpipe, or larynx, but by the action of 
the throat, palate, teeth, tongue, lips, and nostrils. Articulation begins not, 
till the breath, or voice, has passed through the larynx. 

The simplest articulate voices are those which proceed from an open 
mouth, and are by grammarians called vowel sounds. In transmitting these, 
the aperture of the mouth may be pretty large, or somewhat smaller, or very 
small ; which is one cause of the variety of vowels ; a particular sound be- 
ing produced by each particular aperture. Moreover, in passing through 
an open mouth, the voice may be gently acted upon, by the lips, or by the 
tongue and palate, or by the tongue and throat 5 whence another source of 
variety in vowel sounds. 

When the voice, in its passage through the mouth, is totally intercepted 
or strongly compressed, there is formed a certain modification of articulate 
sound, which, as expressed by a character in writing, is called a consonant. 
Silence is the effect of a total interception ; and indistinct sound, of a strong 
compression: and therefore a consonant is not of itself a distinct articulate 
voice ; and its influence in varying the tones of language is not clearly per- 
ceived unless it be accompanied by an opening of the mouth, that is by a 
vowel. 

By making the experiment with attention, the student will perceive that 
each of the mutes is formed by the voice being intercepted, by the lips, by 
the tongue and palate, or by the tongue and throat; and that the semi-vow- 
els are formed by the same organs strongly compressing the voice in its 
passage, but not totally intercepting it. 

The elements of language, according to the different seats where they 
are formed, or the several organs of speech chiefly concerned in their pro- 
nunciation, are divided into several classes, and denominated as follows : 
those are called labials, which are formed by the lips ; those dentals, that 
are formed with the teeth ; palatals, that are formed with the palate; iiasals, 
that are formed by the nose ; gutturals, that are formed in the throat ; and 
Unguals, that are formed with the tongue. 



SYLLABLES AND WORDS — SPELLING. 13 

CHAPTER II. 

OF SYLLABLES. 

§9. A syllable is a sound, either simple or compound- 
ed, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and con- 
stituting a word, or part of a word : as, a, an, ant. 

A syllable may contain any number of letters from one to seven or eight : 
one of which, at least, must be a vowel. 

§10. Spelling is the art of forming words by their 
proper letters, and rightly dividing them into syllables. 

Spelling is to be learned rather by means of the spelling-book and by ob- 
servation in reading, than by the study of specified rules. The orthogra- 
phy of our language is so irregular, that few general rules can be given, 
and even some of those are encumbered with many exceptions. A large 
number of words are differently spelled by the best scholars, and many 
others are written without any regard to their sounds, or to the orthography 
of similar words. But for a person to be ignorant of the orthography of 
such words as are uniformly spelled, and often used, is justl}' considered 
reproachful. 

In dividing words into syllables, we are, for the most 
part, to be governed by the ear. The following general 
rules may, however, be of service. 

1. The consonants should generally be joined to the 
vowels, which they modify ; as, ob-ju-ra-to-ry. 

2. Compounded words must be resolved into the simple 
words of which they are composed ; as, ice-house, glow- 
worm, over-power, never-the-less. 

3. Grammatical, and other particular terminations, are 
generally separated ; as, teach-est, teach-eth, teach-ing, 
teach-er, contend-est, great-er, wretch-ed ; good-ness, free- 
dom, false-hood. 

4. At the end of a line, a word may be divided if neces- 
sary ; but a syllable never. 



CHAPTER III. 

OF WORDS AND RULES FOR SPELLING. 

§11. Words are articulate sounds, or combinations of 
letters, used by common consent, as signs of our ideas. 
A word of one syllable is termed a Monosyllable ; a word 



14 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

of two syllables, a Dissyllable; a word of three syllables, a 
Trisyllable ; and a word of four or more syllables, a Poly- 
syllable. 

There are as many syllables in a word as there are distinct sounds. 

All words are either primitive or derivative. 

A primitive word is that which cannot be reduced to any 
simpler word in the language : as, man, good, content. 

A derivative word is that which may be reduced to an- 
other word in English of greater simplicity : as, manful, 
goodness, contentment, Yorkshire. 

Words, again, are either simple or compound. 

A simple word is one that is not compounded; as, boy, 
chair. 

A compound word is one that is composed of two or more 
other words ; as, ale-house, brick-bat. 

Rules for Spelling, 

§1£* A few concise rules for the spelling of words will 
here be given, which the learner can consult at his pleasure. 
It should not be forgotten, however, that spelling-books and 
dictionaries, and attentive observation in reading, afford the 
only proper facilities, and are the surest guides to a correct 
orthography of the English language. 

Rule I. Monosyllables ending with/, I, or s, preceded by a single vow- 
el, double the final consonant} as, staff, mill, pass, &c. The only excep- 
tions are, of if, is, has, was, yes. his, this, us, and thus. 

Rule II. Monosyllables ending with any consonant buifl, or s, and 
preceded by a single vowel, never double the final consonant 5 excepting 
add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn, purr, and buzz. 

Rule III. Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, end- 
ing with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double that con- 
sonant, when they take another syllable beginning with a vowel. as, wit, 
witty; thin, thinnish ; abet, abettor; begin, beginner. 

But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is on the preceding syllable, 
the consonant remains single 5 as, toil, toiling, offer, offering; maid, mai- 
den, &c. 

Rule IV. Words ending with any double letter but I, and taking ness, 
less, ly,orful, after them, preserve the letter double 5 as, harmlessness, 
carelessness, carelessly, stiffly, successful, distress/id, &c. But those words 
which end with double I, and take ness, less, ly s or ful, after them, generally 
omit one I; as, fulness, skilless, skilful, &c. 

Rule V. Ness, less, ly, and ful, added to words ending with silent e, 
do not cut it off 5 as. paleness, guileless, clns,ely , peaceful ; except in a few . 
words 3 as ? duly, truly, awful. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 15 

Rule VI. Ment, added to words ending with silent e, generally pre- 
serves the e from elision j as, abatement, chastisement, incitement, &c. The 
words judgment, abridgment, acknowledgment, are deviations from the rule. 

Like other terminations, ment changes y into i t when preceded by a con- 
sonant} as, accompany, accompaniment ; merry , merriment . 

Rule VII. Able and ible, when incorporated into words ending with 
silent e, almost always cut it off} as, blame, blamable .-cure, curable ; sense, 
sensible, &c. : but if c or g soft comes before e in the original word, the e 
is then preserved in words compounded with able ; as, change, changeable ; 
peace, peaceable, &c. 

Rule VIII, When ing or ish is added to words ending with silent e, the 
e is almost universally omitted 3 as, place, placing; lodge, lodging-, slave, 
slavish; prude, prudish. 



PART II. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

§13. The second part of grammar is etymology, 
which treats of the different classes of words, their va- 
rious modifications, and their derivations.* 



CHAPTER I. 

A GENERAL VIEW OP THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

§ 1.4. There are eight classes of words, or, as they are 
commonly called, parts of speech ; namely, the substan- 
tive or noun, the adjective, the pronoun, the verb, the 
adverb, the preposition, the conjunction, and the inter- 
jection. 

Words are susceptible of different modes of classification, according to 
the object had in view. In dictionaries they are classed according to their 
initial or final letters 3 in spelling-books, according to the number, or accent 
of their syllables 3 in Grammar, according to their significations, or the of- 
fice they perform in the sentence. In determining, therefore, the class to 
which any word belongs in Grammar, regard must always be paid to its 
general sense, or its connection with other words in the same sentence. 

*On the derivation of words, the student is referred to the Appendix. 



16 ETYMOLOGY. 

1. A Noun or Substantive is the name of any person, 
place, object, or thing that exists, or which we may conceive 
to exist ; as, man, Boston, virtue, bird, conception. 

2. An Adjective is a word joined with a noun, to express 
its quality ; as, •' An industrious man ; a virtuous woman." 

An Adjective may be known by its making sense with the addition of the 
word thing ; as, a good thing- $ a bad thing 5 or of any particular noun 5 as, 
a sweet apple, a pleasant prospect, a lively boy. 

3. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid 
the too frequent repetition of the same word ; as, " The man 
is happy; he is benevolent; he is useful/' 

4. A Verb is a word which expresses action, existence 
or state ; I run, I am, I am struck, I sit. 

A Verb may generally be distinguished, by its making sense with any of 
the personal pronouns, or the word to before it 5 as, I walk, he plays, they 
write; or, to walk, to play, to write, 

5. An Adverb is a part of speech joined with a verb, an 
adjective, and sometimes to another adverb, to express some 
quality or circumstance respecting it; as, " He reads well; 
a truli/ good man; he writes very correctly" 

An Adverb may be generally known, by its answering to the question, 
How? how much? when? or where ? as, in the phrase, " He reads correct' 
ly," the answer to the question, How does he read? is, correctly. 

6. Prepositions serve to connect words with one anoth- 
er, show the relation between them, and also the condition 
of things ; as, " He went from Boston to New York ;" "She 
is above disguise ;" " The house is near the shore." 

A preposition may be known by its admitting after it a personal pronoun, 
in the objective case 5 as, with, for, to, &c. will allow the objective case 
after them 5 with him, for her 3 to them, &c, 

7. A Conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly 
used to connect sentences; so as out of two or more sen- 
tences to make but one ; it sometimes connects only words ; 
as, " You and he are happy, because you are good." "Two 
and three are five.''' 

8. Interjections are words thrown in between the 
parts of a sentence, to express the passions or emotions of 
the speaker ; as, " O virtue ! how amiable thou art !" 

The Interjection seems scarcely worth}' of being considered a part of ar- 
tificial language, being rather a branch of that natural language, which we 
possess in common with the brute creation, and by which we express the 



NOUNS IN GENERAL. 17 

sudden emotions and passions which actuate us. But, as it is used in writ- 
ten, as well as oral language, it may have some claim, to be reckoned as apart 
of speech, and is, therefore, admitted as such. 

§15. The observations which have been made, to aid 
learners in distinguishing the parts of speech from one 
another, may afford them some small assistance ; but it 
will certainly be much more instructive to distinguish them 
by the definitions, and an accurate knowledge of their na- 
ture. 

In the following passage, all the parts of speech are exem- 
plified : 

The power of speech is a faculty peculiar to man; and 
was bestowed on him by his beneficent Creator for the great- 
est and most excellent uses ; but alas ! how often do we per- 
vert it to the worst of purposes. 

In the foregoing sentence, the words poiver, speech, facul- 
ty, man, Creator, uses, purposes, are substantives ; the, a, pe~ 
culiar, beneficent, greatest, excellent, worst, are adjectives ; 
him, his, we, it, are pronouns ; is, was bestowed, to pervert, 
are verbs ; most, how, often, are adverbs ; of, to, on, by, for, 
are prepositions ; and, but, are conjunctions ; and alas is 
an interjection. 



CHAPTER II. 

OF NOUNS. 

Of Nouns in General, 

§16. A Noun is the name of any person, place, object, 
or thing that exists or which we may conceive to exist ; 
as, man, Boston, virtue. 

Nouns are either proper or common. 

Proper nouns are names appropriated to individuals ; as, 
Washington, New York, Potomac. 

Common nouns stand for classes containing many kinds, or 
for kinds containing many individuals under them ; as, anU 
mal, man, tree, &x. 

Thus fowl is the common name of all feathered animals, which By, fish, 
of all animals which live wholly in the water, &c. 

Common nouns usually include the following- classes, viz : collective, ab- 
stract, and verbal or participial nouns. 



18 ETYMOLOGY. 

A collective noun, or noun of multitude, is the name of many individuals 
together; as, council, flock, assembly. 

An abstract noun is the name of a quality abstracted from its substance ; 
as, knowledge, goodness, whiteness. 

A participial or verbal noun, is a name formed from a verb, but used as 
a noun j as, beginning, reading, writing. 

PRACTICAL EXERCISE-No. I. 

[Let the learner be required to distinguish the nouns in the following sen- 
tences, and also to tell which are proper and which common. J 

" Socrates and Plato were celebrated for their wisdom, and were 
the most eminent philosophers of Greece." 

" Jerusalem, the Jewish capital, was destroyed by the Romans, 
under Titus, the son of Vespasian." 

" Intemperance engenders disease, sloth produces poverty, pride 
creates disappointment, and dishonesty exposes to shame." 

" Men are often deceived by false appearances and extravagant 
pretensions." 

" Sincerity and truth form the basis of every virtue." 

" Man's happiness, or misery, is in a great measure put into his 
own hands." 

" Riches, honors, and pleasures, steal away the heart from true 
religion." 

u King Solomon built a temple, and dedicated it to the Al- 
mighty." 

" A habit of sincerity in acknowledging faults, is a great guard 
against committing them." 

Of the Limitation of Nouns. 

§1*7. When proper nouns become plural, or have defin- 
itives annexed to them, they are used as common nouns : 
as, the lives of the Twelve Ccesars ; the Cicero of his age. 

Common nouns may also be used to signify individuals, 
by the addition of adjectives or pronouns ; as, the boy is stu- 
dious ; these men are discreet. 

" Proper names are sufficiently definite without the aid of another word 
to limit their meaning-, as Boston, Baltimore, Savannah. Yet when individ- 
uals have a common character, or predominant qualities which create a simil- 
itude between them, this common character becomes in the mind a species, 
and the proper name of an individual possessing this character, admits of 
the definitives and of the plural number,like a common name. Thus a conspir- 
ator is called aCatalinej and numbers of them Catalines, or the Catalines of 
their country. A distinguished general is called a Csesar} an eminent ora- 
tor, the Cicero of his age. 

But names, which are common to a who?e kind or species, require often 
to be limited to an individual or a certain number of individuals of the kind 
or species. For this purpose the English language is furnished with a num- 
ber of words, as an or fl, the, this, that, these, those, and a few others, which 
define the extent of the signification of common names, or point to the par- 
ticular things mentioned. These are all adjectives or adjective pronouns, 
having a dependence on some noun expressed or implied ; but some of them 
are used also as substitutes, Of these an or a and the are never employed 



NOUNS — LENDER, 19 

as substitutes, but are constantly attached to some name or an equivalent 
word ) and from their peculiar use, have obtained the distinctive appellation 
of articles. But definitive is a more significant and appropriate term 5 as 
they are definitive adjectives, and have, grammatically considered, the like 
use as this, that, some, none, any. 

An is simply the Saxon one or an, one; It was formerly written an be- 
fore a consonant ; but for the ease and rapidity of utterance, it is written and 
pronounced a before a consonant, and before a vowel which includes the 
sound of a consonant 5 as, a pen, a union ; also before h aspirate ; as a house. 
It retains its primitive orthography an before a vowel, and a silent conso- 
nant ; as, an eagle, an hour. 

The is used before vowels and consonants. v — Webster. 

The following rules, in addition to what has been said 
above, will be found to embrace all that is essential on the 
limitation of nouns. 

1. A noun, without a preceding definitive, is generally 
used in its widest sense; as, " A candid temper is proper 
for man;" that is, for all mankind. 

This rule, however, is liable to many exceptions, as will be observed by 
the following examples j " There are fishes that have wings." Here plainly 
all fishes are not meant, but only a particular kind. " There shall be signs 
in the sun." " Nat ion shall rise against nation? 7 In these sentences, signs 
and nation are used in a restricted sense, 

2. The definitive an or a can be joined to nouns in the 
singular number only ; as, a lion, an ox, a house. 

But there appears to be a remarkable exception to this rule, in the use of 
the adjectives few and many, (the latter chiefly with the word great before 
it,) which, though joined with plural nouns, yet admit of the singular ar- 
ticle a 5 as, a few men : a great many men. 

The reason of it is manifest, from the effect which the article has in these 
phrases*, it means a small or great number collectively taken, and therefore 
gives the idea of a whole, that is, of unity. Thus, likewise, a dozen, a score, 
a hundred, or a thousand, is one whole number, an aggregate of many col- 
lectively taken ; and therefore still retains the article a, though joined as an 
adjective to a plural substantive; as, a hundred years, &c. 

The definitive a is sometimes placed between the adjective many 3 and a 
singular noun : as, 

11 Full many a gem of purest ray serene, 

u The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear: 
" Full many a flow 1 r is born to blush unseen, 
" And waste its sweetness on the desert air." 

In these lines, the phrases, many a gem, and many aflowW, refer to many 
gems and mani/jflotoers, separately, not collectively considered, 

3. The definitive the is employed before names, to limit 
their signification to one or more specific things of the kind, 
discriminated from others of the same kind. Hence, the 
person or thing is understood by the reader or hearer ; as, 
the twelve Apostles, the laws of morality, the rules of good 
breeding. 

A3 



20 ETYMOLOGY. 

This definitive is also used with names of things which exist alone, or 
which we consider as single; as, the Jews, the Sun, the Globe, the Ocean: 
and also before words when used by way of distinction ; as, the Church, the 
Temple. 

4. The is used rhetorically before a name in the singular 
number, to denote the whole species, or an indefinite num- 
ber ; as, " the Jig-tree putteth forth her green figs." 

Nouns have modifications of four kinds ; namely, Gender, 
Number, Person and Case. 

OF GENDER. 

§18. Gender is the distinction of nouns, with regard to 
sex, and belongs only to names of animals. Animals have 
two sexes ; male and female. 

There are two* genders, the Masculine and Feminine. 

The Masculine Gender denotes animals of the male kind ; 
as, a man, a hero, a tiger. 

The Feminine Gender denotes animals of the female 
kind ; as, a woman, a duck, a hen. 

Some Nouns, the names of inanimate things, are, by a 
figure of speech, converted into the masculine or feminine 
gender; as, when we say of the sun, he is setting; of a 
ship, she sails well. 

Figuratively, in the English tongue, we commonly give the masculine 
gender to nouns which are conspicuous for the attributes of imparting or 
communicating, and which are by nature strong and efficacious. Those, 
again, are made feminine, which are conspicuous for the attributes of con- 
taining or bringing forth, or which are peculiarly beautiful or amiable. 

*Grammarians have exceedinglv erred in admitting three genders in the 
English language, which evidently allows of two only. Their fondness for 
the Ancient langueges, and the servility which has too frequently been ob- 
served in copying from these languages, have led them into this error. In the 
Greek and Latin, and some modern languages, the gendei of nouns is de- 
termined directly by their terminations, and the terms masculine and feminine 
are applied to inanimate objects, no regard whatever being had to sex. It 
may be manifestly proper, therefore, in the Greek, or Latin, to admit a neuter 
gender. But the English, strictly following the order of nature, puts every 
noun which denotes a male animal, in the maculine gender, and ^very name 
of a female animal, in the feminine gender. This gives our language a su- 
perior advantage to most others, in the poetical and rhetorical st> le ; for 
when inanimate things are figuratively converted into masculine or feminine, 
the personification is more distinctly and forcibly maiked 3 and furthermore, 
the gender is easily and naturally determined, without being encumbered by 
a vast horde of terminations and scores of exceptionable rules. As things 
without life have no sex, and as the supposition would be an absurdity too 
gross for the credulity of the plainest understanding, gender ought never to 
be spoken of in relation to them, any more than case of adjectives, or com- 
parison of verbs. 



NOUNS — GENDER. 



21 



Upon these principles, the sun is said to be masculine, and the moon, being 
the receptacle of the sun's light, to be feminine. The earth is generally 
feminine. A ship, a country, a city, &c. are likewise made feminine, be- 
ing receivers or containers. Time is always masculine, on account of its 
mighty efficacy. Virtue is feminine from its beauty, and its being the ob- 
ject of love. Fortune and the church are generally put in the feminine gen- 
der. 

PRACTICAL EXERCISE— No. II. 

[In this Exercise, let the pupil distinguish the nouns which have gender 
from those which have not, and also tell which are masculine and which 
feminine.] 

" Moses was the meekest man we read of in the Old Testament." 
11 A mother's tenderness and a father's care, are nature's gifts 
for man's advantage." 

" Peter, John and Andrew's occupation was that of fishermen." 
11 Herod laid hold on John, and put him in prison for Herodias' 
sake, his brother Philip's wife." 

" A profligate man is seldom or never found to be a good hus- 
band, a good father, or a beneficent neighbor." 

4< A son bred in sloth, becomes a spendthrift, and a profligate, and 
goes out of the world a beggar." 

Note. It is recommended to teachers m examining their pupils on the 
Exercises, frequently to propose to them questions of the following descrip- 
tion : as. On the Noun, — Why a noun ? why common ? why proper? Why 
of the masculine gender? why of the feminine? Why singular ? &c. 
On the Adjective, — Why a common adjective ? why a proper? Why of the 
positive degree ? why of the superlative ? &c. On the Pronoun, — Why a per- 
sonal, relative, or adjective pronoun ? Why of the first person ? Why of the 
singular number ? &c. On the Verb, — Why active ? why passive ? Why 
of the indicative mood ? why subjunctive ? Why of the present tense ? why 
of the past? why of the prior future ? &c. &c. The experienced instructor 
will not be at a loss how to propose questions of this character. 

Modes of distinguishing Gender. 

§19. The English language has three methods of dis- 
tinguishing the sex, viz. 

1. By different words: as, 



Male. 




Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Bachelor 




Maid 


Husband 


Wife 


Boar 




Sow 


King 


Queen 


Boy 




Girl 


Lad 


Lass 


Brother 




Sister 


Lord 


Lady 


Buck 




Doe 


Man 


Woman 


Bull 




Cow 


Master 


Mistress 


Bullock or 
Steer 


) 


Heifer 


Milter 
Nephew 


Spawner 

Niece 


Cock 




Hen 


Ram 


Ewe 


D0£ 

Drake 




Bitch 
Duck 


Singer 


C Songstress or 
\ Singer 


Earl 




Countess 


Sloven 


Slut 



22 


ETYMOLOGY. 




Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Father 


Mother 


Son 


Daughter 


Friar 


Nun 


Stag 


Hind 


Gander 


Goose 


Uncle 


Aunt 


Hart 


Roe 


Wizard 


Witch 


Horse 


Mare 






o 


By a difference of termin 


ation: as, 


Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Abbot 


Abbess 


Landgrave 


Landgravine 


Actor 


Actress 


Lion 


Lioness 


Administrator 


Administratrix 


Marquis 


Marchioness 


Adulterer 


Adultress 


Master 


Mistress 


Ambassador 


Ambassadress 


Mayor 


Mayoress 


Arbiter 


Arbitress 


Patron 


Patroness 


Baron 


Baroness 


Peer 


Peeress 


Bridegroom 


Bride 


Poet 


Poetess 


Benefactor 


Benefactress 


Priest 


Priestess 


Caterer 


Cateress 


Prince 


Princess 


Chanter 


Chantress 


Prior 


Prioress 


Conductor 


Conductress 


Prophet 


Prophetess 


Count 


Countess 


Protector 


Protectress 


Deacon 


Deaconess 


Shepherd 


Shepherdess 


Duke 


Duchess 


Songster 


Songstress 


Elector 


Electress 


Sorcerer 


Sorceress 


Emperor 
Enchanter 


Empress 
Enchantress 


Sultan 


C Sultaness 
( Sultana 


Executor 


Executrix 


Tiger 


Tigress 


Governor 


Governess 


Traitor 


Traitress 


Heir 


Heiress 


Tutor 


Tutoress 


Hero 


Heroine 


Viscount 


Viscountess 


Hunter 


Huntress 


Votary 


Votaress 


Host 


Hostess 


Widower 


Widow 


Jew 


Jewess 







3. By a noun, pronoun, or adjective, being prefixed to 
the substantive : as 



A cock-sparrow 
A man-servant 
A he-goat 
A he-bear 
A male child 
Male descendants 



A hen-sparrow 
A maid-servant 
A she-goat 
A she-bear 
A female child 
Female descendants 



It sometimes happens, that the same noun is either masculine or feminine. 
The words parent, child, cousin, friend, neighbor, servant, and several others, 
are used indifferently for males or females. These words cannot properly 
be said to denote a distinct species of gender, as some writers on English 
grammar have asserted, denominatirg them the common geiider. There is 
no such gender belonging to the language. Parsing can be effectually per- 
formed without it. Thus, we may say ; Parents is a noun of the masculine 
and feminine gender. Parent, if doubtful, is of the masculine or feminine 



NOUNS NUMBER. 23 

gender} and Parent, if the gender is known by the construction, is of the 
gender so ascertained. 

Nouns with variable terminations contribute to conciseness and perspicu- 
ity of expression. We have only a sufficient number of them to make us 
feel cur want ; for when we say of a woman, she is a philosopher, an as- 
tronomer, a builder, a weaver, we perceive an impropriety in the termina- 
tion, which we cannot avoid 5 but we can say that she is a botanist, a stu- 
dent, a witness, a scholar, an orphan, a companion, because these termina- 
tions have not annexed to them the notion of sex. 



CHAPTER III. 

OF NUMBER. 

§£0. Number is that property of a noun, by which we 
determine how many are meant, whether one or more. 

There are two numbers, the singular and the plural. 

The singular number expresses but one object ; as, a 
chair ', a table. 

The plural number signifies more objects than one ; as, 
chairs, tables. 

Some nouns, from the nature of the things which they 
express, are used only in the singular form ; as, wheat, 
pitch, sloth, pride, &c. ; others, only in the plural form ; 
as, bellows, scissors, lungs, riches, 6lc. 

Some words are the same in both numbers ; as, deer, 
sheep, swine, &c. 

The plural number of nouns is generally formed by ad- 
ding 5 to the singular; as, dove, doves; face, faces; 
thought, thoughts. But when the substantive singular ends 
in x, ch soft, sh, ss, or s, we add es in the plural ; as, box, 
boxes; church, churches; lash, lashes; kiss, kisses; re- 
bus, rebusses. If the singular ends in ch hard, the plural 
is formed by adding s; as, monarch, monarchs; distich, 
distichs. 

Nouns which end in o, have sometimes es added to the plural ; as, car- 
go, echo, hero, negro, manifesto, potato, volcano, wo : and sometimes only 
s ; as, folio, nuncio, punctilio. 

Nouns ending- in/, or fe, are rendered plural by the change of those ter- 
minations into ves ; as, loaf, loaves; half, halves 5 wife, wives; except 
grief, relief, reproof, and several others, which form the plural by the addi- 
tion of s. Those which end in ff, have the regular plural ; as ruff, ruffs 5 
except staff, staves. 

A i 



24 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Nouns which have y in the singular, with no other vowel in the same syl- 
lable, change it into ies in the plural :* as beauty, beauties ; fly, flies. But 
the y is not changed when there is another vowel in the syllahle : as key, 
keys ; attorney, attorneys. 

Some nouns become plural by changing the a of the singular into e: as, 
man, men; woman, women 5 alderman, aldermen. The words, ox and child 
form oxen and children ; brother, makes either brothers or brethren. Some- 
times the diphthong 00 is changed into ee in the plural ; as, foot, feet 3 goose, 
geese} tooth, teeth. Louse and mouse make lice and mice Penny makes 
pence, or pennies, when the coin is meant: die, dice (for play) 3 die, dies 
(for coining). Peas denote the seeds as distinct objects 3 peas e ", the seeds in 
mass. Brothers is used in common discourse : brethren, in the scripture 
style, but is not restricted to it. 

The following words are used wholly in the singular, or 
in the singular and plural, at the pleasure of the writer. 



Aniend3 


Wages 


Conies 


Tactics 


Alms 


Billiards 


Catoptrics 


Economics 


Bellows 


Fives 


Dioptrics 


Mathematics 


Gallows 


Sessions 


Acoustics 


Mechanics 


Odds 


Measles 


Pneumatics 


Hydraulics 


Means 


Hysterics 


Statics 


Hydrostatics 


Pains 


Physics 


Statistics 


Analytics 


News 


Ethics 


Spherics 


^Rtics 


Riches 


Optics 







Of these, pains, riches, and wages are more usually considered as plural — 
news is always singular — odds and means are either singular or plural. The 
others are more str ; «ily singular 5 for measles is the name of a disease, and, in 
strictness, no more 'plural ihan gout or fever. Small poo:, for pocks, is some- 
times considered as a plural, but it ought to be used as singular. Billiards 
has the sense of game, containing unity of idea ; and ethics, physics and other 
similar names, comprehending each the whole system of a particular science, 
do not convey the ideas of parts or particular branches, but of a whole col- 
lectively, a unity; and hence seem to be tieated as words belonging to the 
singular number. Pains, preceded by much, is always singular. 

§£1. The following words, which have been adopted 
from the Hebrew, Greek and Latin languages, are thus dis- 
tinguished, with respect to number. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Antithesis Antitheses Effluvium Effluvia 

Automaton Automata -r, . _ C Encomia or 

Basis Bases Enconium J Encomiums 



* The change of y into ies to form the plural number, may seem to a for- 
eigner an odd irregularity j but the cause is very obvious. Formerly the 
singular number of this class of words ended with ie, as glorie, vanitie, en- 
ergie, and the addition of s made the plural glories. But whether from 
caprice, negligence, or a desire to simplify the orthography, the termina» 
tion ie was laid aside for y in the singular, while the old pluial ies was re- 
tained. A strange inconsistency, but by no means the only one which the 
progress of our language exhibits.— Webster. 



NOUNS — NUMBER. 



25 



Index 
Lamina 



Male. Female. Male. 

Crisis Crises Erratum 

Criterion Criteria Genius 

Diaeresis Diaereses Genus 

Ellipsis Ellipses 

Emphasis Emphases 

Hypothesis Hypotheses 

Metamorphosis Metamorphoses Medium 

Phenomena Magus 

Appendices or Memorandum 
Appendixes 

Arcana Radius 

Axes Stamen 
Calxes or Calces Stratum 

Data Vortex 



Phenomenon 

Appendix 

Arcanum 
Axis 
Calx 
Datum 



Female. 
Errata 
Genii* 
Genera 
Indices or 
Indexes 
Laminae 
Media 
Magi 

Memoranda or 
Memorandums 
Radii 
Stamina 
Strata 
Vortices 



Cherubim and seraphim are real Hebrew plurals 5 but such is the propen- 
sity in men to form regular inflections in language, that these words are used 
as in the singular, with regular plurals, cherubims, seraphims. In like 
manner, the Hebrew singulars, cherub and seraph, have obtained regular 
plurals. 

The influence of this principle is very obvious in other foreign words, 
which the sciences have enlisted into our service ; as may be observed in 
the words radius, focus, index, &c, which now begin to be used with reg- 
ular English plural terminations. This tendency to regularity is, by all 
means, to be encouraged ; for a prime excellence in language is the uniform- 
ity of its inflections. 

Some words, derived from the learned languages, are confined to the 
plural number *, as, antipodes, credenda, literati, minutir , 

The following nouns being, in Latin, both singular and plural, are used 
in the same manner when adopted into our tongue : hiatus, apparatus, 
series, species. 

PRACTICAL EXERCISE— No. III. 

[The pupil will give the number of the nouns in these sentences ; also tell 
which are proper and which are common, and name the gender, in case the 
noun has it.] 

" The chief misfortunes which befal us in life, can be traced to 

some vices or follies which we have committed." 

" When sickness, infirmity, or reverses of fortune, affect us, the 

sincerity of friendship is proved." 

" Wise men measure time by their improvement of it." 

"Many a trap is laid to ensnare the feet of youth." 

M Hypocrites are like wolves in sheeps' clothing." 

" The measles and small pox are contagious, and often fatal 

diseases." 

11 Wisdom secures the decays of age from aversion." 
'• Vallies are generally more fertile than hills." 
" Xenophanes preferred reputation to wealth." 

* Genii, when denoting aerial spirits. Geniuses , when signifying persons 
of genius. 

t Indexes, when it signifies pointers, or tables of contents. Indices, when 
referring to Algebraic quantities, 

B 



26 ETYM0L0G5T. 



OF PERSON. 

§22. Persons, in grammar, are modifications that dis- 
tinguish the speaker, the hearer, and the individual or 
thing spoken of. 

The distinction of persons is founded on the different relations which nouns 
sustain to the discourse itself. Persons are applied also to pronouns and 
finite verbs. Pronouns must agree with their antecedents, in person ; and 
verbs with their subjects. 

There are three persons; the Jirst, second and third. 

The Jirst person denotes the person speaking : as, " J 
Paul have written/' 

The second person denotes the person spoken to: as, 
"John, come here." 

The third person denotes the person spoken of: as, 
" James loves his booh. 11 

In written language, the Jirst 'person denotes the writer, except when the 
writer describes not himself, but some one else 5 and the second person, the 
reader. 

When inanimate things are spoken to, they are said to be personified, and 
their names are put in the second person, 

PRACTICAL EXERCISE— No. IV. 

f The student will distinguish the gender, number and person of the nouns 
in these sentences ; also tell which are proper and which common.] 

"I Paul, an apostle of Jesus Christ, unto Timothy, my own son 
in the faith." 

u Personal liberty is every man's natural birthright." 

" And thou Solomon, my son, know thou the God of thy father, 
and serve him with a perfect heart, and with a willing mind." 

" The guilty mind cannot avoid many melancholy apprehen- 
sions." 

44 Thou, Alexander, though styled the conqueror of the world, 
■wast in fact a robber and a murderer." 

" O piety ! virtue! how insensible have I been to your charms !" 

" The Saxons reduced the greater part of Britain to their own 
power." 

44 Ambition is insatiable : it will make any sacrifice to attain its 
object." 

44 Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, 
Lie in three words, health, peace and competence.' ' 

" O my father and friend ! how I have dishonored thee !" 
44 High seasoned food vitiates the palate, and occasions a disrelish 
for plain fare." 



NOUNS- — CASE. 27 



OF CASE. 



§23. Cases are modifications which denote the rela- 
tions that nouns sustain to other words. 

There are three cases : the nominative^ possessive and 
objective. 

The nominative case simply expresses the name of a 

thing, or the subject of the verb: as, "the boy plays;" 

41 The girls learn." 

The subject of a verb is usually the agent, or actor. Its position, in gen- 
eral, is before the verb. 

The possessive case expresses the relation of property or 
possession ; and has an apostrophe with the letter s coming 
after it: as, " The scholar's duty ;" " My father's house." 

"When the plural ends in s, the other s is omitted, but the apostrophe is re- 
tained : as, "On eagles' wings ;" "The drapers 7 company." 

Sometimes, also, when the singular terminates in ss, the apostrophic 8 is 
not added ; as, "For goodness' sake f* u For righteousness' sake," 

When the letter s, added as the sign of the possessive, will coalesce with 
the name, it is pronounced in the same syllable : as, John's. But if it will 
not coalesce, it adds a syllable to the word : as, Thomas's bravery, pro- 
nounced as if written Thomasis — the church's prosperity, churchis prosper- 
ity. These examples show the impropriety of retrenching the vowel} but it 
occasions no inconvenience to natives. 

As a proof of the utility of distinguishing the possessive plural by an apos- 
trophe, we need only recur to a few common phrases. 
"All the ships masts were blown away." 
" AH the trees leaves were blown off." 

In these, and similar phrases, it is only the apostrophe, placed before or 
after the s, that determines the ships and trees to be singular or plural. 

The objective case expresses the object of an action, or 
of a relation ; and generally follows a verb active, or a prep- 
osition : as, " John assists Charles ;" " They live in Lon- 
don." 

Both this case and the nominative, as they are not distinguished by inflec- 
tions, can be known only by their position or the sense of, the passage in 
which they occur. 

PRACTICAL EXERCISE— No. V. 

[In these sentences, the pupil will name the number, person and case of 
each noun.] 

u Moses' rod was turned into a serpent." 
11 She who studies he* glass neglects her heart." 
" Wisdom's precepts form the good man's interest and happiness." 
"A well-spent day prepares us for sweet repose." 
u Good men pass by offenses and take no revenge." 
" Graceful in youth are the tears of sympathy, and the heart that 
melts at the tale of wo." 

"If the mind sow not corn, it will plant thistles." 
{i Wisdom is justified of her children/' 



28 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Declension of Nouns. 

§24. The declension of a noun is a regular arrange- 
ment of its numbers and cases. 

Nouns are declined in the following manner : 



Nominative Case. 
'Possessive Case. 
Objective Case. 


Singular. 

mother. 

mother's. 

mother. 


Plural. 
mothers, 
mothers', 
mothers. 


Nominative Case. 
Possessive Case. 
Objective Case. 


The man. 
The man's. 
The man. 


The men. 
The men's. 
The men. 


Nominative Case. 
Possessive Case. 
Objective Case. 


horse. 

horse's. 

horse. 


horses. 

horses'. 

horses. 


Nominative Case. 
Possessive Case. 
Objective Case. 


fox. 

fox's. 

fox. 


foxes. 

foxes'. 

foxes. 


Nominative Case. 
Possessive Case. 
Objective Case. 


money. 

money's. 

money. 


moneys. 

moneys'. 

moneys. 



The English language, to express different connexions and relations of 
one thing to another, uses, for the most part, prepositions. The Greek and 
Latin among the ancient, and some too among the modern languages, as the 
German, vary the termination or ending of the substantive, to answer the 
same purpose. 

PRACTICAL EXERCISE-No. VI. 

[Decline the nouns in these sentences, and mention the gender, number, 
person and case of each ] 

"Rocks, mountains and caverns are of indispensable use both to 

the earth and to man." 

"A well-poised mind makes a cheerful countenance." 

14 How many disappointments have, in their consequences, saved 

men from ruin." 

"Jacob worshiped leaning on the top of his staff." 

14 The last king of Rome was Tarquinius Superbus." 

11 The pyramids ©f Egypt have stood more than three thousand 

years." 

44 Meekness controls our angry passions ; candor our severe 

judgements." 

44 When so good a man as Socrates fell a victim to the madness 

of the people, truth, virtue, religion, fell with him." 

44 Old age will prove a joyless and dreary season, if we arrive at 

it with an unimproved or a corrupted mind." 



ADJECTIVES— VARIATION, &C. 29 

4i Health, peace, a moderate fortune and a few friends, sum up 
all the undoubted articles of temporal felicity." 

" Learning strengthens the mind, and, if properly applied, will 
improve our morals also." 

M Fear God and keep his commandments ; for this is the whole 
duty of man." 

Note. Practical exercises of the preceding character, constitute what 
Grammarians call Etymological Parsing. They are chiefly valuable in that 
they afford the student a practical application of what he learns in the text, 
of the parts of speech and their attributes, and will thus serve not only to 
familiarize him with the text, but often to give him juster notions and clearer 
conceptions of certain parts of it, than he would otherwise be able to obtain. 
Some of the exercises already given, as also some which may follow, may 
be found rather difficult for the young learner; but the teacher will be able 
to afford him such helps as he may need. These exercises, or others equiva- 
lent, are never to be omitted with the beginner, and should be attended to, 
as often as he reviews his grammar, until his proficiency in Etymology shall 
render it no longer necessary. 



CHAPTER III. 

OF ADJECTIVES. 

§25. An adjective is a word joined with a noun to ex- 
press its quality : as, si An industrious man ; n u A virtuous 
woman ;" " A benevolent mind." 

A proper adjective is one derived from a proper noun: 
as, American, Irish, Ciceronean. 

A numeral adjective is one that expresses a definite num- 
ber : as, one, two, three, &c. ; also, frst $ second, third, 
fourth, &,c. 

A participial adjective is one that has the form of a par- 
ticiple, but not the idea of time : as, the rising sun ; an 
interesting child. 

Compound adjectives are such as consist of two or more 
words connected by a hyphen : as, olive-brown, swift-winged, 
light-hearted. 

Variation of Adjectives. — Degrees of Comparison. 

§26. The only variation which adjectives admit of, is 
that of degrees of comparison. 

There are commonly reckoned three degrees of compari- 
son ; the positive, the comparative, and the superlative* 
B2 



30 ETYMOLOGY. 

Grammarians have generally enumerated three degrees of comparison ; 
but the first of them has been thought by some writers, to be improperly 
termed a degree of comparison ; as it seems to be nothing more than the 
simple form of an adjective, and not to imply either comparison or degree. 
This opinion may be well founded, unless the adjective be supposed to im- 
ply comparison or degree, by containing a secret or general reference to 
other things : as, when we say, " he is a tall man," " this is a fair day/ 7 we 
make some reference to the ordinary size of men, and to different weather. 

The positive degree expresses the quality of an object, 
without any increase or diminution : as, good, wise, great. 

The comparative degree increases or lessens the positive 
in signification : as, wiser, greater, less wise. 

The superlative degree increases er lessens the positive to 
the highest or lowest degree : as, wisest, greatest, leastwise* 

The termination ish may be accounted in some sort a degree of compari- 
son, by which the signification 13 diminished below the positive : as, black, 
blackish, or tending to blackness ; salt, saltish, or having a little taste of salt. 

The word rather, is very properly used to express a small degree or excess 
of a quality : as, " She is rather profuse in her expenses." 

Very expresses a high degree of comparison : as, very swift, very sweet. 

Certain adjectives have in themselves the superlative degree, and cannot 
be compared : as, right, eternal, immortal, endless. 

Numeral adjectives, also, do not admit of comparison : as,, one, two, fifth, 
eighth, triple. 

Regular Comparison. 

§27. The simple word, or positive, becomes the com- 
parative, by adding r ©r er ; and the superlative, by adding 
st or est, to the end of it : as, wise, wiser, wises/ ; great, 
greater, greatest. And the adverbs more and most, placed 
before the adjective, have the same effect : as, wise, more 
wise, most wise. 

Adjectives are compared negatively by the adverbs, less 
and least : as, wise, less wise, least wise. 

Monosj'llables, for the most part, are compared by er and est ; dissyllables, 
and polysyllables, by more and most, and less and least: as, mild, milder, 
mildest ; frugal, more frugal, most frugal ', admirable, less admirable, least 
admirable. 

Dissyllables ending in y, as, happy, lovely 5 and in le after a mute, as, able, 
ample 5 or accented on the last syllable, as, discreet, polite 5 easily admit of 
er and est: as, happier, happiest 5 abler, ablest 5 politer, politest. Words 
of more than two syllables hardly ever admit of those terminations, but are 
compared by more and most, and less and least. 

Irregular Comparison. 
A few adjectives have different words or irregular termi- 
nations for expressing the degrees of comparison : as, good, 
better, best ; bad or evil, worse, worst ; fore, former, first ; 
little, less or lesser, least ; much, more, most ; near, nearer, 



ADJECTIVES PRACTICAL EXERCISE. 31 

nearest or next ; old, older or eldest ; late, later, latest or 
last. 

In some words the superlative is formed by adding 1 the adverb most to the 
end of them 3 as, nethermost, uttermost, or utmost, undermost, uppermost, fore- 
most. 

Note. An adjective put without a substantive, with the definitive the before 
it, becomes a substantive in sense and meaning, and is written as a substan- 
tive : as, a Providence rewards the good, and punishes the bad." 

Various nouns placed before other nouns assume the nature of adjectives 5 
as, sea fish, wine vessel, corn field, meadow ground, &c. 

The and An or A. 

These words,* on account of their frequent use, more 
than for any other reason, have, by grammarians in general, 

*The following- remarks by the learned Lexicographer, Dr. N.Webster, 
on the words An and A, may be very properly subjoined in this place, in 
addition to what has already been said. 

There is scarcely, says he, a fault in writing English which more emphati- 
cally marks the ignorance and negligence of authors than the mistakes res- 
pecting the character of an and a. The early writers on grammar and lexi- 
cography, finding an and one both in use, and one only used in numbering, 
classed an among the articles. Now the fact is, an is the Saxon spelling of 
one ; the same word in origin and use, coinciding with the first syllable of the 
Latin unus. An, in Saxon, was used in numbering 3 an gear, one year. After 
the introduction of the Norman French, une from the Latin unus, was used 
in counting, and changed to one, while an continued to be used before nouns 
in the singular number, expressing one in all other cases. 

The origin of an being lost or mistaken, the later grammarians inverted 
the order of things, and considered a as the primitive word, and hence they 
proceeded to lay down the following rules : — 

I. An article is a word used before nouns to show how far their significa- 
tion extends 5 as a garden, an eagle. 

II. A or an is styled the indefinite article : it is used in a vague sense to 
point out one single thing of the kind, in other respects indeterminate 5 as, 
" Give me a book," that is any book. A becomes an before a vowel, and 
before a silent h. 

Tbe first rule or remark is true, so far as an is concerned, for the word 
signifies one ; it is the appropriate adjective to express a single person or 
thing 5 it shows that the word which it precedes extends to an individual 
only. In this respect, it is precisely synonymous with one, which may be used 
in the place of an, in almost all cases. 

The second rule, definition, or description, of an or a contains two affirm- 
ations which are not correct. A does not become an before a vowel 3 the 
reverse is the fact 5 an is the original word, which, for ease in a rapid enun- 
ciation, looses the consonant n before another consonant. 

Nor is it correct to call an or a indefinite, as it is used indifferently before 
nouns definite or indefinite. In the example above given. " give me a book 3 
that is, any book," the words a book are indefinite 5 but this application of 
an or a is not peculiar to the adjective expressing one ; it is equally true of 
every adjective of number in the language. Bring me two books from the 
shelf3 that is, any two ; bring me three books 5 that is, any three 5 bring me 
an _ orange 3 that is, any orange; bring me ten oranges 3 that is, any ten; 
bring me forty oranges 3 that is, any forty. 

But let us test the rule by examples. 

B3 



32 ETYMOLOGY. 

been placed in a class by themselves. But as they uniformly 
belong to names, and are added to point them out, define 
them, or limit their signification, there can be no good 
ground for separating them from that class of words whose 
office, is the same. They are, to all intents and purposes, 
adjectives; differing in species, however, somewhat from 
other adjectives. For this reason they may be called defini- 
tive adjectives^ or, for the sake of brevity, simply definitives. 
[See §17, and note on preceding page.] 

PRACTICAL EXERCISE— No. VII. 

[The student will point out the adjectives in the sentences following-, and 
also compare them, where they admit of comparison.] 

" The young bird raising its open mouth for food, is a natural 
indication of corporeal want." 

a The Son of man came not to be ministered to, but to minister, and to 
give his life a ransom for many." 

Now according to the foregoing' rule, a ransom here is vague, and indeter- 
minate; it may be any ransom. 

" For all men counted John that he was a prophet indeed J 1 

According to the rule, a prophet here is any prophet, in a vague sense, and 
indeterminate, though expressly referring to John. 

'.' But ye are a chosen generation, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a 
peculiar people." 

Here by the rule, a chosen generation, is any generation, vague and inde- 
terminate, although expressly referred to the saints addressed by the apostle. 

lt I will establish my covenant between me and thee, and thy seed after thee 
in their generations for an everlasting covenant 5 to be a God to thee, and 
to thy seed after thee. ,; 

According to the rule, an everlasting covenant, in this passage^ is vague, 
and indeterminate 5 any covenant 5 and a God is any God indeterminate. 

" I am a stranger and a sojourner with you." " I am come a light into the 
world," 

The gold piece called an eagle is an American coin: 

Sir Isaac Newton was a great mathematician. Are these nouns vague, 
uncertain, indeterminate ? 

New York is situated on an island ; Boston is situated on a peninsula 5 that 
is, by the rule, any island, any peninsula, indeterminate. 

Such are the contradictions between rules and facts, every day taught in 
our schools. 

The mistake of the real character of an introduced the use of a or an be- 
fore one, as in the passages above cited. In the phrase, such a owe, or such 
an one, the adjective expressing- one is used twice 5 an or its abbreviation a 
being only a different spelling of the same word. It is just as improper to 
say such an one, as it would be to say, such two two ; such three three; or 
such duo two ; such tres three; using Latin and "English, instead of Saxon 
and modern English. The proper words are such one. 

The phrases in which a or an is admissible before one are that anomaly, 
Many a one, a phrase reducible to no rule, and standing only on customary 
use ; and in the following forms of speech ; bring me an orange ; select a good 
one ; take a belter one and others which are similar ; in which one is a sub- 
stitute for a noun or name. Such a one is as unnecessary and improper as 
which a one ; that a one* 



PRONOUNS. 33 

" No sensual, or worldly enjoyments are adequate to the high 
desires and powers of an immortal spirit." 

" The moral system of nature, or natural religion, commands the 
approbation of the reasonable mind." 

" The Alleghany and the Monongahela rivers form the majestic 
Ohio." 

M A temperate, industrious and frugal life seldom fails to render 
man comfortable and happy." 

" Extensive fields of waving corn, form a rich and pleasant 
prospect." 

" Washington was a man of the greatest prudence, the most ex- 
act justice, the most rigid probity and the soundest virtue." 

11 Nothing promotes knowledge more than a steady application, 
and a habit of close observation and calm reflection." 

" By a cheerful, candid and uniform temper, we promote health, 
and conciliate general favor." 

M Generosity is a showy virtue, of which many persons are very 
fond." 



CHAPTER IV. 

OF PRONOUNS. 

§2>8. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to 
avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word : as, "The 
man is happy ; he is benevolent ; he is useful. 1 ' 

The pronoun is also used to represent a sentence, a part of a sentence, and 
sometimes even a series of prepositions ; as, " His friend bore the abuse very 
patiently, which served to increase his rudeness 5 it produced at length con- 
tempt and insolence." 

There are three classes of pronouns, viz : the Personal, 
the Relative and Adjective Pronouns. 

1. A Personal pronoun is one, which by its form, shows 
what person it is of: Thus, / is always of the first person, 
you or thou, of the second, and he, she or it, of the third. 

2. A Relative pronoun is one, that relates in general to 
some antecedent word or phrase, in the place of which it 
stands : as, " The man is happy who lives virtuously. " 

3. An Adjective pronoun is one, that partakes of the 
properties both of an adjective and pronoun ; being some- 
times used chiefly to limit or point out nouns, and at others, 
to occupy their place as a pronoun : as, "Some men desire 



34 ETYMOLOGY. 

pleasure as their chief good." u This is the road to pleasure \ 
that to fame." 

Some grammarians have added to the above a class of Interrogative pro- 
nouns ; but from the near resemblance of the words comprised under it, to 
Relative pronouns, there seems to be no good reason for such a classification. 
[See farther on this subject under article, Relative pronouns ,] 

PRACTICAL EXERCISE-No. VIII. 

[Name the pronouns iu these sentences, and, if you are able, tell the class 
to which each belongs.] 

" We must act our part with constancy, though the reward of our 

constancy be distant." 

"Esteeming themselves wise they became fools." 

"Thou art the Lord, who didst choose Abraham, and bring him 

forth out of Ur of the Chaldees." 

" How many sorrows should we avoid, if we were not industrious 

to make them !" 

11 Each leaf, each twig and every drop of water, teems with life." 
" From the character of those with whom you associate, your 

own will be estimated." 

OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

§29. There are five Personal Pronouns, viz : 1, you or 
thou, he, she, it ; with their plurals, we, you, they. 

Personal pronouns admit of person, number, gender and 
case. 

The persons of pronouns are three in each number, viz : 
7, is the first person \ 

You, or thou, is the second person > Singular. 
He, she or it, is the third person ) 
We, is the first person \ 

You, is the second person > Plural. 

They, is the third person ) 

This account of persons will be very intelligible, when we reflect, that there 
are three persons who may be the subject of any discourse : first, the person 
who speaks, may speak of himself; secondly, he may speak of the person 
to whom he addresses himself j thirdly, he may speak of some other person: 
and as the speakers, the persons spoken to, and the other persons spoken of, 
may be many, so each of these persons must have the plural number. 

The numbers of pronouns, like those of substantives, are 
two, the singular and the plural : as, I, thou, he; we, you, 
they. 

Gender has respect only to the third person of the pro- 
nouns, he, she and they. He is masculine ; she is feminine. 
They, applied to animals, is masculine or feminine. 



PRONOUNS. 



35 



It, of the third person, is generally a substitute for names of inanimate 
things, and therefore, is not regarded as denoting any gender. When how- 
ever, it is used in reference to animals, it admits of gender. 

The persons speaking and spoken to, being at the same time the subjects 
of the discourse, are supposed to be present 3 from which, and other circum- 
stances, their sex is commonly known, and needs not to be marked by a dis- 
tinction of gender in the pronouns: but the third person or thing spoken of, 
being absent, and in many respects unknown, it seems necessary that it 
should be marked by a distinction of gender} at least when some particular 
person or thing is spoken of. 

Pronouns have three cases ; the nominative, the possess- 
ive, and the objective. 

The personal pronouns are declined as follows, viz : 



Person, 

First. 


Case. 

Nominative, 

Possessive. 

Objective. 


Singular. 

My. 
Me. 


Plural. 

We. 
Our. 

Us. 


Second, 


Nominative. 

Possessive. 

Objective. 


You or Thou. 
Your or Thy. 
You or Thee. 


You.* 
Your. 
You. 


Third. 
Masculine, 


Nominative. 

Possessive. 

Objective. 


He. 
His. 
Him. 




They. 
Their. 
Them. 


Third. 
Feminine, 


Nominative. 

Possessive. 

Objective. 


She. 
Her. 
Her. 




They. 
Their. 
Them. 


Third, 
No Gender. 


Nominative. 
Possessive. 
Objective. 


It. 
Its. 
It. 




They. 
Their. 
Them. 



The pronouns, thou, thy, thee and ye, are now seldom used in ordina- 
ry language. They are chiefly confined in their use, to scripture and the 
solemn style. 

Mine and thine were formerly used instead of my and thy, before a word 
beginning with a vowel or silent h. Instances of this use are found in both 
the Old and New Testaments, and in books of ancient date. 

Mine, Thine, His, Hers, Ours, Yours, Theirs. 

§30. These pronouns have, in general, been regarded 
as the possessive case. The first three are so, when joined 
to nouns : as, mine oxen ; thine house; his servants : — but 
the last four are universally pronouns in the nominative or 



* Ye has become nearly obsolete, and ought, therefore, no longer to be 
admitted in the declension of the Personal Pronouns. 



36 ETYMOLOGY. 

objective case ; as also the first three, except in the instan- 
ces mentioned. 

That* mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, do not constitute a 
possessive in the exception of mine, thine, and his, above alluded to, is de- 
monstrable -y for they are constantly used as the nominatives of verbs, and as 
the objectives after verbs and prepositions, as in the following passages : 

" Whether it could perform its operations of thinking and memory out of 
a body organized as ours is. — Locke, b. 2. 27. 

" In referring our ideas to those of other men called by the same name, 
ours may be false." — " It is for no other reason but that his agrees not with 
our ideas."— Ibm. ch. 32. 9 and 10. 

" You may imagine what kind of faith theirs was.' 7 — Bacon. Unity in 
Religion. 

" He ran headlong into his own ruin whilst he endeavored to precipitate 
ours." — Bolingbroke. Let. to Windham. 

" The reason is, that his subject is generally things ; theirs, on the contra- 
ry, is persons." — Camp. Khet. b. 1, ch, 10. 

" Yours of the 26th Oct. I have received, as I have always done yours, 
with no little satisfaction." — Wycherley to Pope. 

" Therefore leave your forest of beasts for ours of brutes, called men." 
— Ibm. 

u These return so much better out of your hands than they went from 
mine." — Ibm. 

" Your letter of the 20th of this month, like the rest of yours — tells me with 
so much more wit, sense and kindness than mine can express," &c. — Ibm. 

" Having good works enough of your own besides to ensure yours and 
their immortality." — Ibm. 

" The omission of repetitions is but one, and the easiest part of yours and 
of my design." — Pope to Wycherley. 

u My sword and yours are kin." — Shakspeare. 

It is needless to multiply proofs. We observe these pretended posses- 
sives uniformly used as nominatives or objectives. To say that, in these 
passages, ours, yours, theirs, and mine, form a possessive case, is to make 
the possessive perform the office of a nominative case to verbs, and an ob- 
jective case after verbs and prepositions — a manifest solecism. 

Should it be said that a noun is understood 5 1 reply, this cannot be true, 
in regard to the grammatical construction : for supply the noun for which 
the word is a substitute, and the pronoun must be changed. 

If yours, ours, theirs, &c, are real possessives, then the same word ad- 
mits of two signs of the case 5 for we say correctly, u An acquaintance of 
yours, ours, or theirs' 7 — of being ihe sign of the possessive 5 but it the words 
in themselves are possessives, then there must be two signs of the same 
case, which is absurd. 

In addition to the proofs already alleged, that these words are not a pos- 
sessive case, according to the usual acceptation of the word, we may remark 
that mine, thine and his, in the following passages — " The silver is mine, 
and the gold is mine. Hag. 2 : 8. — " The day is thine, and the night also is 
thine." Ps. 74 : 16 — " The Lord knowelh them that are Ms.* Tim. 2:19 
— do not stand in the place of, of me, of thee, of him. The silver is of me, 
the gold is of me, the day is of thee, the Lord knoweth them that are of him, 
do not convey the same ideas, as the present form of expression. Of in 
these expressions, would rather imply proceeding from. 

Besides, the same words admit the sign of the possessive : as, " And the 
man of thine, whom I shall not cutoff from mine altar." 1 Sam. 2: 33. — 

* The remarks of this section are chiefly from the Grammar of N. Webster. 



PRONOUNS. 



37 



" Sing to the Lord, all ye saints of his." Pa. 30 : 4.—" He that heareth 
these sayings of mine." Mattel. When we say, <c A soldier of the king's/' 
we mean one of the king's soldiers ; and in the passage here cited from Sam- 
uel, •' the man of thine " has a like sense — " the man of thy men," that is, 
any one of them. But in the passages from Psalms and Matthew, the words 
" all ye saints of his," " these sayings of mine," are evidently meant to in- 
clude" the whole number. It is therefore impossible to resolve these passa- 
ges, without considering mine, thine and his as substitutes, in the same case, 
as the nouns would be, which they represent. 

OF COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

§31. Compound Personal Pronouns are such as are 
formed by adding the word self for the singular, and selves 
for the plural, to some of the variations of the personal pro- 
nouns. 

They have gender, number, person and case, except the 
possessive, and are thus declined : 

Person. Case. Singular. Plural. 

First* Nom. Myself. Ourselves. 

Obj. Myself. Ourselves. 

Second. Nom. Yourself or Thyself.Yourselves. 

Obj. Yourself or Thyself. Yourselves. 
Third, Mas. Nom. Himself. Themselves. 

Obj. Himself. Themselves. 

Third, Fern. Nom. Herself. Themselves. 

Obj. Herself. Themselves. 

Third, No Nom. Itself. Themselves. 

Gen. Obj. Itself. Themselves. 

PRACTICAL EXERCISE— No. IX. 

[Decline the personal and compound personal pronouns in these senten- 
ces 5 and also give the number, person and case of each ] 

" Whether virtue promotes our interest or not, we must adhere 
to her dictates." 

u If you are like the wise and prudent man, your words, like his, 
will be few and well chosen." 

"He who knows himself best, will best encounter the ills and 
disquietudes of human life. 

" Integrity itself is of more worth than many kingdoms." 

" Study to know thyself, that thou mayest be wise." 

41 1 myself will awake right early." 

OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

§3£. The Relative Pronouns are, who, which, and that. 
Who, is applied to persons, which, to animals and inani- 
mate things : as, " He ia a friend, who is faithful in ad- 



38 ETYMOLOGY. 

versity ;" " The bird, which sung so sweetly, is flown ;" 
" This is the tree, which produces no fruit. " 

Which, is sometimes used In speaking of persons, when we wish to distin- 
guish between two or more : as, " Which of the two, think ye, that I am V 

That, is often used to prevent the too frequent repetition 
of who and which, and also for euphony. It is applied to both 
persons and things : as, "He that acts wisely deserves 
praise;" "Modesty is a quality that highly adorns a woman.' 

There are certain cases, in which that is preferable to who or which. 

1, In speaking of children 5 as we can hardly ascribe to them the qualities 
of adults : as, " The child that obe3's its parents, will be loved by them." 

2. In speaking of persons and things together : as, " The man and the 
horse, that I saw, perished." 

3, After the relative who : as, " Who, that asks aright, will not receive V 1 

4. After the adjective same, and superlative degree: as, " The same man, 
that I saw yesterday, [ have seen to-day ; u The wisest man that lived be- 
fore Christ, was Socrates." 

That, as an objective must always precede the verb or preposition, which 
governs it. 

What, is a kind of compound relative, including both the 
antecedent and the relative, and is mostly equivalent to that 
which: as, u This is what I wanted ;" that is to say, " the 
thing which I wanted." 

Who, is of both numbers, and is thus declined : 

Singular and Plural. 

Nominative. Who. 

Possessive. Whose. 

Objective. Whom. 

Which, that and what, are likewise of both numbers, but 
they do not vary their terminations ; except that whose is 
sometimes used as the possessive case of which : as, " Is 
there any other doctrine whose followers are punished V 

By the use of this license, one word is substituted for three : as, " Philoso* 
phy, whose end is to instruct us in the knowledge of nature," for, " Philoso- 
phy, the end of which is to instruct us," &c. 

Who, which, and what, have sometimes the words soever 
and ever annexed to them : as, " whosoever or whoever, 
whichsoever or whichever, whatsoever or whatever :" in these 
instances they may be regarded as Compound Relatives. 

As, after the words, such, many, and same, and in a few 
other instances, has the force of a relative pronoun, and in 
parsing may be construed as such. " He took such books 
as pleased him." " The court gave the same judgement, as 
had once before been given." " The court grants to as 
many as apply, the rights of citizenship." 



PRONOUNS. 39 

If we do not consider as in these sentences a relative, we must suppose an 
ellipsis of several words. Thus, the first sentence above would read, k< He 
took such books as those books were which pleased him." It is preferable to 
construe it as a pronoun. 

The word that is sometimes a relative, sometimes a demonstrative pro- 
noun, sometimes a conjunction. It is a relative, when it may be turned into 
ivho or which without destroying- the sense; as, " They that (who) reprove 
us, may be our best friends 5" " From every thing thai (which) you see, de- 
rive instruction." It is a demonstrative pronoun when it is followed immedi- 
ately by a substantive, to which it is either joined, or refers, and which it limits 
or qualifies : as, " That boy is industrious 3" " That belongs to me 3" mean- 
ing-, that book, that desk, &c. It is a conjunction, when it joins sentences 
tog-ether, and cannot be turned into who or which, without destroying the 
sense : as, " Take care that every day be well employed 3" " I hope he will 
believe that I have not acted improperly." 

The word what, likewise, is sometimes a compound relative, sometimes an 
adjective pronoun, and sometimes an interjection. It is a compound relative, 
when it may be changed into that which, the thing which, or those things 
which: as, " I took what (that which or the things which) you gave me." 
It is an adjective pronoun, when joined to a noun : as, " What strange things 
he said !" In some instances when joined to a noun, it has the force of two 
or more words, and is a compound adjective pronoun : as, " I know not 
what impressions time may have made upon your person," — that is, H I know 
not those impressions which time," &c. It is an interjection, when used to 
express wonder: as, " What ! repay a father's kindness with ingratitude!" 
What also is sometimes an interrogative pronoun, as will be seen below. 

Who, which, and what, are called Interrogatives, when 
they are used in asking questions: as, " Who is he 1" " Which 
is the book?" "Wliat art thou doing?" 

Some writers have classed the interrogatives as a separate kind of pro- 
nouns ; but :hey are too nearJy related to the relative pronouns, both in na- 
ture and form, to render such a division proper. They do not, in fact, lose 
the character of relatives, when they become interrogatives. The only dif- 
ference is, that ivithout interrogation, the relatives have reference to a sub- 
ject which is antecedent, definite, and known 3 with an interrogation, to a 
subject which is subsequent, indefinite, and unknown, and which it is expect- 
ed that the answer should express and ascertain. 

PRACTICAL EXERCISE— No. X. 

[The pupil is required fo tell which are the relative pronouns in these 
sentences, and the number, person and case of each.] 

" For many walk of whom I have told you often, and now tell 
you even weeping, that they are the enemies of the cross of Christ ; 
whose end is destruction, whose God is their belly, and whose glory 
is in their shame, who mind earthly things." 

11 Calumny and detraction are sparks which, if you do not blow 
them, will go out of themselves." 

11 He that would improve must be diligent." 
"The master received into his school all such as came." 
■• He is like a beast of prey, that destroys without pity." 
" The court that gives currency to manners, ought to be ex- 
emplary." 

" Which of those men came to his assistance?" 



40 ETYMOLOGY. 



OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 



§33. Adjective Pronouns are divided into three classes, 
viz : the distributive , the demonstrative, and the indef 



inite. 



I. Of the Distributive. 



The distributive are those which denote the persons or 
things that make up a number, as taken separately and 
singly. They are each, every, either, and neither : as, 
" Each of his brothers is in a favorable situation ;" li Every 
man must account for himself;" " I have not seen either 
of them." 

Each relates to two or more persons or things, and signifies either of 
the two, or every one of every number taken separately. 

Every relates to several persons or things, and signifies each one of 
them all taken separately. This pronoun was formerly used apart from its 
noun, but it is now constantly annexedto it, except in legal proceedings j 
as in the phrase, u all and every of them." 

Either relates to two person or things taken separately, and signifies the 
one or the other. To say, " either of the three,' 7 is therefore improper. 

Neither imports " not either; 77 that is, not one nor the other : as, ".Neither 
of my friends was there. ;; 

II. Of the Demonstrative, 

The demonstrative are those which precisely point out the 
subjects to which they relate ; this and that, these and those, 
are of this class : as, " This is true charity; that is only 
its image." 

This refers to the nearest person or thing, and that to the 
most distant : as, " This man is more intelligent than that." 
This indicates the latter or last mentioned ; that, the form- 
er or first mentioned : as, " Both wealth and poverty are 
temptations ; that tends to excite pride, this discontent." 

This and that are of the singular number : these and 
those, of the plural. 

Perhaps the words former and latter may be properly ranked amongst 
the demonstrative pronouns, especially in many of their applications. The 
following sentence may serve as an example : " It was happy for the state, 
that Fabius continued in the command with Minucius 5 the former's 
phlegm was a check upon the tatter's vivacity." 

III. Of the Indefinite. 

The indefinite are those which express their subjects in 
an indefinite or general manner. The following are of this 
kind : some, other, any, one, all, such, many, none, &c. 



PRONOUNS. 41 

Of these pronouns, only the words one and other are varied. One has a 
possessive case, which it forms in the same manner as substantives : as, 
one, one's. This word has a general signification, meaning people at large 3 
and sometimes also a peculiar reference to the person who is speaking : as, 
44 One ought to pity the distresses of mankind." " One is apt to love one's 
self." This word is often used, by good writers, in the plural number : as, 
44 The great ones of the world 5 " The boy wounded the old bird, and stole 
the young ones ;" "My wife and the little ones are in good health. 

Other is declined in the following manner : 





Singular. 


Plural. 


Nominative. 


Other; 


Others. 


Possessive. 


Other's. 


Others.' 


Objective. 


Othen 


Others. 


One is declined thus : 








Singular. 


Plural. 


Nominative. 


One. 


Ones. 


Possessive. 


One's. 


Ones'. 


Objective. 


One. 


Ones. 



The plural others is only used when apart from the noun to which it re- 
fers, whether expressed or understood : as, a When you have perused these 
papers, 1 will send you the others." " He pleases some, but he disgusts 
others" When this pronoun is joined to nouns, either singular or plural, 
it has no variation : as, 4t the other man," " the other men." 

The following phrases may serve to exemplify the indefinite pronouns. 
" Some of you are wise and good 5" "A few of them were idle, the others 
industrious 3" " Neither is there any that is unexceptionable 3" " One ought 
to know one' 9 own mind 3" " They were all present 3" " Such is the state 
of man, that he is never at rest;" " Some are happy, while others are mis- 
erable." 

The word another is composed of an prefixed to the word other. 

None is used in both numbers : as, " None is so deaf as he that will not 
hear 3" " None of those are equal to these." 

Note. We have endeavored to explain the nature of the adjective pro- 
nouns, and to distinguish and arrange them intelligibly 3 but it is difficult, 
perhaps impracticable, to define and divide them in a manner perfectly un- 
exceptionable. Some of them, in particular, may seem to require a differ- 
ent arrangement. We presume, however, that, for every useful purpose, 
the present classification is sufficiently correct. All the pronouns, except 
the personal and relative, may indeed, in a general view of them, be con- 
sidered as definitive pronouns, because they define or ascertain the extent of 
the common name, or general term, to which they refer, or are joined 3 but 
as each class of them does this, more or less exactly, or in a manner pecul- 
iar to itself, a division adapted to this circumstance appears to be suitable 
to the nature of things and the understanding of learners. 

PRACTICAL EXERCISE— No. XL 

[Point out the adjective pronouns, name the number of each, and the class 
to which it belongs.] 

"My counsel to each of you is, that he make it his endeavor to 
come to a friendly agreement." 

11 Every man must account for himself." 

" Either John or Peter will be there." 

"Instead of improving yourselves you have been playing these 
two hours." 

B4 



42 ETYMOLOGY. 

"That sort of favors did real injury, under the appearance of 
kindness." 

" All men think all men mortal but themselves." 

" Jabal was the father of such as dwell in tents." 

"He came unto his own and his own received him not." 

"Ye shall lie down and none shall make you afraid." 

"By love serve one another." 

*• I will take either road at your pleasure." 



CHAPTER V. 



OF VERBS. 

Of Verbs in General. 

§34. A Verb is a word which expresses action, being, 
or state : as, I run ; I am ; I am struck ; I sit* 

The uses of the verb are, 

1st. To affirm, assert, or declare: as, The sun shines ; John loves study 5 
God is just 5 and negatively, Avarice is not commendable. 
2d. To command, exhort, or invite ; as, Go, attend ; Let us observe. 
3d. To pray, request, entreat : as, O, may the spirit of grace dwell in us. 
4th. To inquire or question : as, Does it rain ? Will he come ? 

Verbs are of two kinds ; viz. those which signify action, 
and those which signify simply being, or existence in a cer- 
tain place or condition. The latter kind are called Inac- 
tive, and. admit of no subdivisions. 

I. Verbs expressing action are subdivided in reference 
to the manner in which they represent action, into two 
classes ; viz. Active and Passive. 

1. An active verb is one that expresses action affirmed 
of the subject, or belonging thereto : as, John studies ; 
Peter runs ; Job loves to study. 

Active verbs are of two kinds ; viz. active transitive, and 
active intransitive* 

a. An active transitive verb expresses an action, which 
has a person or thing for its object ; as, David slew Goli- 
ath ; Noah built the Ark. 

b. An active intransitive verb expresses an action which 
has no person or thing for its object ; as, Charles runs ; 
the eagle soars. 



VERBS IN GENERAL. 43 

Many active verbs are used both transitively and intransitively, the con- 
struction alone determining which kind they are of: thus, to flatten, signify- 
ing to make even, or level, is transitive ; but when it signifies to grow dull, 
or insipid, it is intransitive. In general, active verbs are transitive when 
the object is expressed or clearly implied on which the action terminatesj 
when they have no such object expressed or implied, they are intransitive. 

2. A Passive verb is one that expresses the receiving or 
suffering of an action, and represents the subject as being 
acted upon, and implies an agent by which it is acted upon : 
as, Saul was loved by David ; Charles has been struck. 

It is important for the learner to keep in mind, that all passive verbs are 
active in their nature and signification ; or rather, are a form of the active 
verb, to express action received. All active transitive verbs admit of a 
passive form ; as also a few verbs which are active intransitive. The 
active form of the verb is called the active voice ; and the passive form, the 
passive voice. 

II. An Inactive verb is one that expresses no action, 
but simply being in a certain place or condition : as, I am ; 
John sleeps ; he sits. 

An inactive verb may become active, or an intransitive verb be rendered 
transitive, by the addition of a preposition : as, to smile, to smile on ; to 
laugh, to laugh at. 

Verbs agree with their subjects in respect to action or inaction. Thus, if 
the subject, or nominative case, is active, the verb is active ; if the subject 
is passive, the verb is passive ; and if the subject is inactive, the verb is 
inactive. 

Auxiliary, or helping verbs, are those by the help of 
which other verbs are principally conjugated. They are, 
do, be, have, may, can, shall, and will, with their variations ; 
and must, which has no variation. The first three are often 
used as principal verbs. 

PRACTICAL EXERCISE— No. XII. 

[The learner is required to distinguish the verbs in the following sen- 
tences, and to name the class to which each belongs.] 

"Temperance and exercise "preserve health." 
•• Wisdom, and not wealth, procures esteem." 
44 Csesar, as well as Cicero, was admired for his eloquence." 
"Errors that originate in ignorance, are generally excusable. " 
" A dutiful son loves, obeys and reverences his parents." 
" Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put it on Jacob." 
" He that trusts in the Lord, will never be without a friend." 
"The throne we honor is the people's choice." 
u Washington was twice elected president of the United States." 
11 Idleness brings forward and nourishes many bad passions." 
" Deliberate slowly, execute promptly. 

" The man of virtue and honor will be trusted, relied on, and 
esteemed." 

" We must stand or fall, by our own conduct and character." 
C 



44 ETYMOLOGY. 

Modifications. 

Verbs are modified by Numbers, Persons, Moods and 
Tenses. 

of number and person. 

§35. Verbs have two numbers, the singular and the 
plural: as, I am, we are, &<c. 

They have in each number three persons : as, 

Singular. Plural; 

1st Person. I love. We love. 

2d Person. Thou lovest or you love. You love. 

3d Person. He loves or loveth. They love. 

Is* Person. 1 am. We are. 

2d Person. You are. You are. 

3d Person. He is. They are. 

Thus the verb, in some parts of it, varies its ending's, to express, or agree 
with different persons of the same number : as, " I love, thou lovest ; he 
loves;" and also to express different numbers of the same person: as, 
" thou lovest, you love; he loves, they love." In the plural number of the 
verb, there is no variation of ending to express the different persons 5 and the 
verb, in the three persons plural, is the same as it is in the first person sin- 
gular. Yet this scanty provision of terminations is sufficient for all the pur- 
poses of discourse, and no ambiguity arises from it : the verb being always 
attended, either with the noun expressing the subject acting or acted upon, 
or with the pronoun representing it. For this reason, the plural termination 
in en, they loven, they weren, formerly in use, was laid aside as unnecessary, 
and has long been obsolete. The same is nearly true of the termination in 
eth, as he loveth, she walketh. It is found only in the solemn style, and sel- 
dom there. 

Strictly speaking, verbs can have neither number or person ; these quali- 
ties appertaining solely to nouns and pronouns. They are applied, however, 
very conveniently to certain forms of the verb, to denote agreement in these 
particulars with the subject. 

PRACTICAL EXERCISE-No. XIII. 

[Let the pupil tell the number and person of each verb.] 

"I run when 1 am in haste." 

" We love a graceful and becoming air." 

" He walks with a firm step." 

" She possesses a pleasing address." 

"You spell very well." 

** Charles reads correctly." 

" Virtue has never failed to reward its possessor." 

" Experiments are often unsuccessful." 

" The earth was once in a chaotic state." 

4t And many false prophets shall arise and deceive many." 

" And you shall hear of wars, and rumors of wars." 



VEBBS — MOODS. 45 

OF MOODS. 

§36. Mood or Mode is a particular form of the verb, 
showing the manner in which the being, the acting, or the 
receiving of an action, is represented. 

The nature of mood may be more intelligibly explained to the scholar, by 
observing, that it consists in the change which the verb undergoes, to signify 
various intentions of the mind, and various modifications and circumstances 
of action ; which explanation, if compared with the following account and 
uses of the different moods, will be found to agree with and illustrate them. 

There are five moods of verbs, the indicative, the sub- 
junctive, the potential, the infinitive, and the imperative. 

1. The Indicative Mood simply indicates or declares a 
thing : as, " He loves, he is loved :" or it asks a question: 
as, " Does he love?" " Is he loved?" 

2. The Subjunctive Mood represents a thing under a con- 
dition, motive, wish, supposition, &/C. ; and is preceded by 
a conjunction, expressed or understood, and attended by 
another verb : as, •• I will respect him, though he chide me ;" 
M Were he good, he would be happy :" that is, u if he were 
good." 

The conjunctions which are more frequently, the signs of this mood, are if, 

though j unless, whether. 

3. The Potential Mood implies possibility, liberty, pow- 
er, will, or obligation: as, M It may rain; he may go or 
stay ; I can ride ; he would walk ; they should learn." 

This mood may always be distinguished by the auxiliaries may, can, must 9 
might, could, would and should ; some one of whicii enters into every tense. 
The Potential mood, as well as the Indicative, is often used in asking ques- 
tions : as, can I go? Must he stay 1 

4. The Infinitive Mood expresses a thing in a general and 
unlimited manner, without any distinction of number or 
person : as, u to act, to ep^ak, to be feared." 

This mood is distinguished by the sign io, wfaieh always precedes the 
verb, and is regarded as making a part of it. After the verbs bid, dare, 
let, make, see and a few others, the sign to is omitted, but is to be understood. 

5. The Imperative Mood is used for commanding, exhort- 
ing, entreating, or permitting : as, M Depart thou ; mind ye ; 
let us stay ; go in peace." 

Though this mood derives its name from its intimation of command, it is 
used on occasions of a very opposite nature, even in the humblest supplica- 
tions of an inferior being to one who is infinitely superior : as, " Give us this 
day our daily bread : and forgive us our trespasses. 



46 ETYMOLOGY. 

The student will derive some assistance in distinguishing the moods, by 
aid of the signs, as pointed out in the foregoing remarks 5 but it is better that 
he should rely chiefly on the sense of the passage, and the definitions which 
have been given. 

PRACTICAL EXERCISE-No. XIV. 

[Name the mood of each verb and also the number and person.] 

11 1 have gained a good reputation." 

II He will make payment within the month." 

" Obey your parents in the Lord, for this is right." 
V Let us be considerate and patient." 
" Speak in a distinct, clear voice." 

II I may improve by attentive application." 
" Harriet must learn her lesson." 

" James would be pleased to see* you." 
•' If you desire happiness be content." 
11 I love to go forth in the evening, and view the twinkling stars." 

Remarks^ on the Potential Mood. 

§37« That the Potential Mood should be separated from the Subjunc- 
tive, is evident, from the intricacy and confusion which are produced by 
their being blended together, and from the distinct nature of the two moods 5 
the former of which may be expressed without any condition, supposition, 
fee,, as will appear from the following instances : " They might have done 
better f* " We may always act uprightly / 7 " He was generous, and would 
not take revenge ;" " We should resist the allurements of vice 5" u I could 
formerly indulge myself in things, of which I cannot now think but with 
pain. 77 

Some grammarians have supposed that the Potential Mood, as distin- 
guished above from the Subjunctive, coincides with the Indicative. But as 
the latter " simply indicates or declares a thing," it is manifest that the for- 
mer, which modifies the declaration, and introduces an idea materially dis- 
tinct from it, must be considerably different. " I can walk/ 7 " I should 
walk," appear to be so essentially distinct from the simplicity of" I walk/ 7 
" I walked/ 7 as to warrant a correspondent distinction of moods. The Im- 
perative and Infinitive Moods, which are allowed to retain their rank, do not 
appear to contain such strong marks of discrimination from the Indicative, 
as are found in the Potential Mood. 

There are other writers on this subject, who exclude the Potential Mood 
from their division, because it is formed, not by varying the principal verb, 
but by means of the auxiliary verbs may, can, might, could, would, &c. : but 
if we recollect, that moods are used " to signify the various intentions of the 
mind, and various modifications and circumstances of action/ 7 we shall per- 
ceive that those auxiliaries, far from interfering with this design, do, in the 
clearest manner, support and exemplify it. On the reason alleged by these 
writers, the greater part of the Indicative Mood must also be excluded ; as 
but a small part of it is conjugated without auxiliaries; The Subjunctive, 
too, will fare no better 5 since it so nearly resembles the Indicative, and is 
formed by means of conjunctions, expressed or understood, which do not 
more effectually show the varied intentions of the mind, than the auxiliaries 
do which are used to form the Potential Mood. 

* Verbs in the infinitive mood want both number and person, 
t This section may be omitted till a review. 



VERBS — TENSES. 47 

Of the Tenses. 
§38. Tenses are those forms of the verb which distin- 
guish time. They are six in number ; viz. the Present, 
the Past, the Perfect, the Prior Past, the Future, and the 
Prior Future. 

Tense, being the distinction of time, might seem to admit of only three 
variations, the present, past, and future ; but as actions and events of past 
time and future sustain different relations to the present, and are often dif- 
ferently associated with one another in respect to time, it becomes necessary 
to mark the number of distinctions expressed above. 

1. The Present Tense represents an action or event, as 
passing at the time in which it is mentioned : as, •• 1 rule; 

I am ruled; I think; I fear' 3 

The present tense likewise expresses a character, quality, &c, at present 
existing : as, " He is an able man 3" " She is an amiable woman." It is also 
used in speaking" of actions continued with occasional intermissions, to the 
present time: as, "He walks out every morning ;" " He frequently rides y 1 
" He goes into the country every summer." We sometimes apply this tense 
even to persons long since dead : as. " Seneca reasons and moralizes well j" 
"Job speaks feelingly of his afflictions." 

The present tense, preceded by the words, when, before, after, as soon as, 
&c, is sometimes used to point out the relative time of a future action: as, 
" When he arrives he will hear the news j" " He will hear the news before 
he arrives, or as soon as he arrives, or at farthest, soon after he arrives.)" 
" The more she improves, the more amiable she will be." 

In animated historical narrations, this tense is sometimes substituted for 
the imperfect tense: as, " He enters the territory of the peaceable inhabit- 
ants , he fights and conquers, takes an immense booty, which he divides 
amongst his soldiers, and returns home to enjoy an empty triumph." 

Every point of space or duration, how minute soever it may be, has some 
degree of extension. Neither the present, nor any other instant of time, is 
wholly unextended. Nay we connot conceive of an unextended instant; and 
that which we call present, may in fact admit of very considerable extension. 
While I write a letter, or read a book, I say, that I am reading or writing it, 
though it should take up un hour, a day, a week, or a month ; the whole 
time being considered as present, which is employed in the present action. 
In like manner we sometimes make the present include our whole life, a 
century, or the entire term of man's probationary state in this world ; as, 
u The philosophers of this century are less metaphysical, than those of the 
last." 

2. The Past Tense represents an action or event, either 
as past and finished, or as remaining unfinished at a certain 
time past : as, " I loved her for her modesty and virtue :" 

II They, were traveling fast when he met them." 

The pupil may perhaps obtain a clearer idea of this tense 7 by considering 
that it always refers to an action of some past time, however distant that 
time may be, and represents it either as completed, or then going on. [This 
tense was formerly called the Imperfect^] 

3. The Perfect Tense not only refers to what is past, 
but also conveys an allusion to the present time : as, " I 

C2 



48 ETYMOLOGY. 

have finished my letter;*' " I have seen the person that was 
recommended to me." 

In the former example, it is signified that the finishing of the letter, though 
past, was at a period immediately, or very nearly, preceding the present 
time. In the latter instance, it is uncertain whether the person mentioned 
was seen by the speaker a long, or short time before. The meaning is, " I 
have seen him some time in the course of a period which includes, or comes 
to, the present time." 

The perfect tense and the past tense both denote an action that is past ; 
but the former denotes it in such a manner that there is still actually remain- 
ing some part of the time to slide away, wherein we declare the thing has 
been done j whereas the past denotes the thing or action past, in such 
a manner that nothing remains of that time in which it was done. If we 
speak of the present century, we say, " Philosophers have made great dis- 
coveries in the present century :" but if we speak of the last century, we 
say, " Philosophers made great discoveries in the last century." *' He has 
been much afflicted this year ;" u I have this week read the king's proclama- 
tion 5" " I have heard great news this morning. "' In these instances, " He 
has been" " 1 have read," and u heard," denote things that are past 3 but 
they occurred in this year, in this week, and to-day, and still there remains 
a part of this year, v/eek, and day 3 whereof I speak. 

In general/the perfect tense may be applied wherever the action is con- 
nected with die present time, by the actual existence, either of the author, or 
of the work, though it may have been performed many centuries ago 5 but if 
neither the author nor the work now remains, it cannot be used. We may 
say, u Cicero has written orations :" but we cannot say, ** Cicero has lorif.teu 
poems :" because the orations are in being, but the poems are lost. Speak- 
ing of priests in general, we may say. u They have in all ages claimed great 
powers 5" because the general order of the priesthood still exists : but if we 
speak of the Druids, as any particular order of priests, which does not now 
exist, we cannot use this tense. We cannot say, w The Druid priests have 
claimed great powers *," because that order is now totally extinct. 

The perfect tense is used in reference to future time : as, " He will be 
overtaken by a shower before be has advanced three miles." 

4. The Prior Past Tense* represents an action not 
only as past, but also as having taken place prior to some 
other action, or point of time, specified in the sentence : 
as, " I had finished my letter before he arrived." 

5. The Future Tense represents an action as yet to come, 
either with or without respect to the precise time : as, " The 
sun will rise to morrow ;" H I shall see them again." 

6. The'JVw Future Tense intimates that the action will 
be fully accomplished, at or before the time of another fu- 
ture action or event : as, " I shall have dined at one o'clock ;" 
" The two houses will have finished their business, when the 
king comes to prorogue them." 

*This tense has in general been denominated the pluperfect — a term in- 
congruous in itself, and entirely inexpressive of the thing meant. See the 
word prior, in Glossary. 



VERBS TENSES. 49 

There are other modes of expressing future time aside from those mention- 
ed above ' as, " I am going to write 7 " " I am about to write." These have 
sometimes been called the Inceptive future, as they note the commencement 
of an action without delay. 

The substantive verb, followed by a verb in the infinitive mood, forms an- 
other mode of of indicating future time : as/ "Ferdinand is to command the 
army." fl On the subject of style, I am afterwards to discourse." u Eneas 
went in search of the seat of an empire, which was, one day, to command the 
world." This latter expression is a future-past . — that is, past as to the nar- 
rator, but future as to the event at the time specified. 

PRACTICAL EXERCISE— No. XV. 

[Name the tense, mood, number and person of each verb, and also tell 
whether the verb be active, inactive or passive,] 

*\ The tear of penitence brings its own relief." 

N All finery is a sign of littleness." 

44 Howard's highest enjoyment was to relieve the distressed." 

" If he had pursued a different course, he might have escaped cen- 
sure." 

" Modesty has ever been esteemed a presage of rising merit." 

u He will obtain success for he is persevering and honest." 

" I shall have departed before he arrives.' 1 

M True friendship will, at all times, avoid a careless or rough be- 
havior." 

" Deliberate slowly, execute promptly." 

u Benefits should be long and gratefully remembered.'" 

" If the season of youth is passed in idleness, manhood will be 
barren of usefulness and old age of joy." 

u No assumed behavior can always hide the real character." 

'•Advice should be seasonably administered." 

" An upright mind is seldom at a loss to discern what is just and 
true, lovely and of good leport." 

Note. If this and the two preceding 1 exercises are found too difficult 
for the pupil in this stage of his knowledge, they may be omitted until he has 
passed through the conjugations of the verbs. A review in any case will then 
be necessary, when, in addilion to what is required of him above, he should 
be directed to make each verb, or conjugate it to the mood and tense, in 
which its particular form is found. 

Remarks on the Tenses. 

§39. In treating of the tenses, there are two things to 
which the attention ought principally to be turned ; viz. the 
relation which the several tenses have to one another, in re- 
spect to time; and the notice which they give of an action's 
being completed or not completed. 

The present, past, and future tenses, may be used either 
definitely or indefinitely , both with respect to time and ac- 
tion. When they denote customs or habits, and not indi- 
vidual acts, they are applied indefinitely : as, "Virtue -pro- 
motes happiness j" " The old Romans governed by benefits 
03 



50 ETYMOLOGY. 

more than by fear ;" " I shall hereafter employ my time 
more usefully." In these examples, the words, promotes, 
governed and shall employ , are used indefinitely, both in re- 
gard to action and time; for they are not confined to indi- 
vidual actions, nor to any precise points of present, past, or 
future time. When they are applied to signify particular 
actions, and to ascertain the precise points of time to which 
they are confined, they are used definitely ; as in the follow- 
ing instances, "My brother is writing'" " He built the 
house last summer, but did not inhabit it till yesterday." 
" He will write another letter to-morrow. 

The different tenses also represent the action as complete 
or as incomplete. In the phrases, " I am writing," " I was 
writing," I shall be writing," unfinished actions are signi- 
fied. But the following examples, " I wrote," '* I have 
written," I had written," I shall have written," all denote 
complete action. 

All the definite tenses are formed by the participle of the 
present tense and one of the variations of the verb, to be. 

From the preceding representation of the different tenses, it appears, that 
each of them has its distinct and peculiar province ', and that though some 
of them may sometimes be used promiscuously, or substituted one for anoth- 
er; in cases where great accuracy is not required, yet there is a real and 
essential difference in their meaning. — It is also evident, that the English 
language contains the six tenses which we have enumerated. Grammarians 
who limit the number to two, or at most to three, namely, the present, the 
past, and the future, do not reflect that the English verb is mostly com- 
posed of principal and auxiliary 5 and that these several parts constitute one 
verb. Either the English language has no regular future tense, or its future 
is composed of the auxiliary and the principal verb. If the latter be admitted, 
then the auxiliary and principal united, constitute a tense, in one instance ; 
and from reason and analogy, may doubtless do so, in others, in which 
minuter divisions of time are necessary, or useful. What reason can be 
assigned for not considering this case as other cases, in which a whole is re- 
garded as composed of several parts, or of principal and adjuncts ? There 
is nothing heterogeneous in its parts : and precedent, analogy, utility, and 
even necessity, authorize the union. 

OF PARTICIPLES. 

§40. The Participle is a certain form of the verb, and 
derives its name from its participating , not only of the prop- 
erties of a verb, but also of those of an adjective: as"! 
am desirous of knowing him; f} "Admired and applauded, he 
became vain ;" "Having finished his work, he submitted 
it," &c. 

There are three participles in each voice, viz. the present, 



VERBS PARTICIPLES. 51 

the perfect and the compound perfect ; as, loving } loved, hav- 
ing loved. 

1. The Present Participle denotes present time. It 
always ends in the active voice in ing ; and is generally 
formed by adding this termination to the verb : as, turn, 
turning] or when the verb ends with c, by dropping it and 
adding ing ; as, love, loving. 

Participles are distinguished from the adjective, by the former's express- 
ing the idea of time, and the latter's denoting only a quality. The phrases, 
'* loving to give as well as to receive," "moving in hasle," "heated with 
liquor/ 7 contain praticiples giving the idea of time ; but the epithets contain- 
ed in the expressions, " a loving child," " a moving spectacle/ 7 " a. heated im- 
agination/' mark simply the qualities referred to, without any regard to time ; 
and may be called participial adjectives. In this latter use, the participle ad- 
mits of comparison by 7nore and most, less and least : as, more loving, most 
loving ; less moving, least moving. 

This participle, and also the perfect and compound per- 
fect, sometimes perform the office of substantives, and when 
thus used may be called participial nouns : as, " The be- 
ginning ;" " a good understanding ;" " excellent writing ;" 
"The chancellor's being attached to the king secured his 
crown; 5 ' "The general's having failed in this enterprise 
occasioned his disgrace ;" " John's having been writing a 
long time had wearied him." 

In the capacity of a noun, the present participle admits of a piural form : 
as, understandings, overflowings. " All thy goings out, and comings in." In 
a few cases, it is changed to a noun by the addition of ness : as, willingness. 

This participle also is made an adverb by receiving the termination ly : as, 
lovingly, willingly. 

En the passive voice, the present participle is formed by prefixing to the 
perfect participle of an active transitive verb, the present participle of the 
verb to be : as, being loved, being called. 

2. The Perfect Participle denotes past time, and im- 
plies a completion of the action or state to which it refers ; 
as, loved, hated. 

This participle is formed, in regular verbs, by adding ed to the verb, or d 
only, when the verb ends in e. In irregular verbs the formation is various, 
In the passive voice, it is formed as in the active. 

The perfect participle, when its verb is transitive may be 
joined to the verb to be, in all its variations ; and thus join- 
ed, constitutes the Passive Voice. 

The perfect participle sometimes takes the termination ly, and becomes an 
adverb - as, pointedly, dejectedly. 

3. The Compound Perfect Participle denotes the com- 
pletion of any action or event, prior to some other action, or 



52 ETYMOLOGYY 

point of time mentioned in the sentence. In its temporal 
signification, it corresponds with the prior past tense. 

This participle is formed, in the active voice, by prefixing the word having, 
to the perfect participle of any verb : as, having loved, having struck ; and, 
in the passive voice, by prefixing the words, having been, to the same parti- 
ciple of a transitive verb : as, having been loved, having been struck. 

There is another form of this participle, formed by using the present, in- 
stead of the perfect participle : as, having been writing, having been reading. 

Participles not only convey the notion of time : but they also signify ac- 
tions, and govern the cases of nouns and pronouns, in the same manner as 
verbs do ; and therefore should be comprehended in the general name of 
verbs. That they are mere modes of the verb, is manifest, if our definition 
is admitted j for they signify being, doing, or suffering, with the designation 
of time superadded. But if the essence of the verb be made to consist in 
affirmation or assertion, not only the participle will be excluded from its place 
in the verb, but the infinitive itself also 5 which certain ancient grammarians 
of great authority held to be alone the genuine verb, simple and unconnected 
with persons and circumstances. 

The following phrases, even when considered in themselves, show that 
participles include the idea of time: " The letter being written, or having 
been written ;" " Charles being writing, having written, or having been wri- 
ting." But when arranged in an entire sentence, which they must be to make 
a complete sense, they show it still more evidently : as, "Charles having 
written the letter, sealed and despatched it." The participle does indeed 
associate with different tenses of the verb : as, " I am writing," " I was 
writing," u I shall be writing :" but this forms no just objection to its denot- 
ing time. If the time of it is often relative time, this circumstance, so far 
from disproving, supports our position. 

PRACTICAL EXERCISE— No. XVI. 

[The pupil will point out the participles in these sentences, and tell which 
are present, which perfect, and which compound perfect.] 

11 Piety has the purest delight attending it." 

" He, stooping down and looking in, saw the linen clothes lying." 
11 A man used to vicissitudes, is not easily dejected." 
"Having squandered his fortune in luxury and dissipation, he 
lived in sorrow and died unlamented." 

" A judge should speak sitting ; a pleader standing." 

" Amazed 1 stood harrowed with grief and fear." 

" Having been forsaken by friends, I had no farther resource." 

" Time once past never returns ; a moment lost, is forever lost." 

OP THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

§41. The conjugation of a verb is the regular combina- 
tion and arrangement of its numbers, persons, moods and 
tenses. 

There are four Principal Parts in the conjugation of ev- 
ery complete verb ; viz. the Present tense, the Past tense 
indefinite, the Perfect Participle, and the Present Active 
Participle. 



VERBS CONJUGATION. 53 

These are called principal parts , because from them the other parts of the 
verb are chiefly formed. The Present is radically the same in all the moods. 
The present infinitive is called the theme or root of the verb. 

The conjugation of an active verb is called the Active 
Yoice ; and that of a passive verb, the Passive Voice. 
In each voice, a verb may be conjugated four ways, viz. 

1. Affirmatively : as, I" love, I do love 9 I am loving. 

2. Negatively : as, I love not, I do not love, I am not 
loved, 

3. Interrogatively: Love I ? Do 1 love? Am I loved? 
Am I loving ? 

4. Interrogatively and Negatively : as, Love I not ? Do 
I not love ? Am 1 not loving ? Am I not loved ? 

As English vetbs have but few inflections, or changes of termination, the 
word to marks the infinitive, and in the conjugations, pronouns are used to 
distinguish the numbers and persons; if is used to denote the subjunctive, 
and not to show the negative form. Verbs are mostly conjugated by aid of 
the auxiliaries, do, be, have, may, shall, will, might, should, would and must. 

Note. No part of Grammar occasions learners, in general, so much per- 
plexity as the conjugation of the verbs. Their progress will be much aided 
by fixing first well in the mind, the prevailing forms for the moods and prin- 
cipal tenses 5 and afterwards, by associating by degrees the various other 
forms and variations. They should aim ultimately at becoming familiar with 
each separate form for every mood, tense, number and person, in each voice. 
Teachers for this purpose will exercise their pupils on the different moods 
and tenses, at their discretion, having a due regard to their age and attain- 
ments. 

Conjugation of to have. 

§42. The auxiliary and transitive verb, to have, in con- 
jugated in the following manner. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present Infinitive — To have. 
Past Tense — I had. 
Present Participle — Having. 
Perfect Participle — Had. 
Indicative Mood* 







PRESENT TENSE. 








Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


Pers. 


I have 1. Pers. 


We have 


2. 


Pars. 


You* have 2. Pers, 


Yout have 


3. 


Pers. 


He, she, or it has 3. Pers. 


They have 



* The form of conjugating with thou, second person, will be given hereafter. , 

f Ye being nearly obsolete, we have thought- it better to omit it in the con- 
jugations. It may be substituted in any tense for yo?i, if one desires it, with- 
out any change in the form of the verb.. 



34 


t 


ETYMOLOGY. 


1. 

2. 

3. 


Singular. 
I had 
You had 
He, &c. had 


PAST TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. We had 

2. You had 

3. They had 

PERFECT TENSE. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


1 have had 
You have had 
He has had 


1. We have had 

2. You have had 

3. They have had 

PRIOR PAST TENSE. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


I had had 
You had had 
He had had 


1. We had had 

2. You had had 

3. They had had 

FUTURE TENSE. 


1. 
2. 

3. 


I shall, 'or will have 1. We shall, or will have 
You shall, or will have 2. You shall, or will have 
He shall, or will have 3. They shall, or will have 






PRTOR FUTURE TENSE. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


I shall have had 1. We shall have had 

You shall, or will have had 2. You shall, or will have had 

He shall, or will have had 3. They shall, or will have had 






Subjunctive Mood. 






PRESENT TENSE. 


I. 

2. 

3. 


If 1 have 1. If we have 
If you have 2. If you have 
If he has, or have 3. If they have 



The remaining tenses of the subjunctive mood, are, in every respect, simi- 
lar to the corresponding tenses of the indicative mood, with the addition to 
the verb, of a conjunction, expressed or implied, denoting a condition, mo- 
tive, wish, supposition, &c. It will be proper to direct the learner to repeat 
all the tenses of this mood, with a conjunction prefixed to each of them. 

Potential Mood* 

FRESENT TENSE. 

1. I may, can or must have 1. We may, can or must have 

2. You may, can or must have 2. You may, can or must have 
3' He may, can or must have 3. They may, can or must have 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should have should have 

2. You might, could, would, or 2. You might, could, would, or 

should have should have 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. He might, could, would, or 

sho«ld have should have 



VERBS — CONJUGATION. 55 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can or must have had I. We may,can or must have had 

2. You may, can or must have 2. You may, can or must have 

had had 

3. He may, can or must have 3. They may, can or must have 

had had 

PRIOR PAST TENSE. 

1. 1 might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should have had should have had 

2. You might, could, would, or 2. You might, could, would, or 

should have had should have had 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. He might, could, would, or 

should have had should have had 

Imperative Mood* 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Have you, or do you have* 2. Have you, or do you have 

This mood, from the very nature of it, can have but one tense, the pr«- 
ent — and one person, the second. All commands, though their execution 
may be future, must be given now ; that is, the time must be present when 
they are uttered : and as no one can be supposed to command himself, or 
an individual o/whom he is speaking, the imperative mood is evidently lim- 
ited to the second person, or person addressed. 

Infinitive Mood* 

Present, To have. Perfect, To have had. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, Having 

Perfect, Had 

Compound Perfect, Having had. 

Remarks on the Auxiliary Verbs. 

§43. The learner will perceive that the preceding aux- 
iliary verb, to have, could not have been conjugated through 
all the moods and tenses, without the help of the other aux- 
iliary verbs, may % can, will and shall t with their variations, 

* Mr. Murray and some other grammarians have greatly erred, in assign- 
ing the three persons to this mood : as, Let me have, for the first person, 
and Let him have, for the third. For the reason above stated, the impera- 
tive can have but one person j but even waiving this objection, have, in these 
instances, ceases to be in the imperative mood, unless we consider let an 
auxil'ary, which would be a use of that word entirely unwarranted in the 
structure of our language. A verb following let, is in the infinitive : as, u Let 
him study; 77 that is, let him to study,— the to being suppressed, in general, 
for the greater ease in pronunciation. [See Infinitive Mood, page 45.] 



56 ETYMOLOGY. 

and also must. Having illustrated, by the conjugation of 
to have, the connection of auxiliary verbs with the principal, 
and their general utility, this seems a proper place for a few 
observations on their peculiar nature and force. 

The verbs have, be, will, and do, when they are unconnected with a 
principal verb, expressed or understood, are not auxiliaries, but principal 
verbs : as, " We have enough ;" " 1 am grateful ;" " He wills it to be so •" 
" They do as they please." In this view, they also have their auxiliaries: 
as, " 1 shall have enough ;" " 1 will be grateful," &c. 

The peculiar force of the several auxiliaries will appear from the follow- 
ing account of them. 

Do and did mark the action itself, or the time of it, with greater energy 
and positiveness : as, " 1 do speak truth 5" " I did respect him f " Here 
am 1, for thou didst call me." They are of great use in negative sentences: 
as, " 1 do not fear ;" M 1 did not write." They are almost universally em- 
ployed in asking questions : as, " Does he learn V! " Did he not write ?" 
They sometimes also supply the place of another verb, and make the repe- 
tition of it, in the same, or a subsequent sentence, unnecessary : as, u You 
attend not to your studies as he does ;" (i. e. as he attends, #c.) " 1 shall 
come if I can 5 but if I do not, please to excuse me ;" (i. e. if 1 come not.) 

May and might express the possibility or liberty of doing a thing ; can 
and could, the power : as, " It may rain ;" " 1 may write or read ;" " He 
might have improved more than he has;" "He can write much better 
than he could last year." 

Must denotes necessity : as, " We must speak the truth, whenever we 
do speak, and we must not prevaricate." 

Will, in the first person singular and plural, intimates resolution and 
promising ; in the second and third person, only foretels: as, " 1 will re- 
ward the good, and will punish the wicked;" " We will remember bene- 
fits, and be grateful 5" " Thou wilt, or he will, repent of that folly ;" " You 
or they will have a pleasant walk." 

Shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretels 3 in the second 
and third persons, promises, commands, or threatens : as, " I shall go 
abroad ;" " We shall dine at home ;" " Thou shalt, or you shall, inherit 
the land;" u Ye shall do justice, and love mercy ;" " They shall account 
for their misconduct." The following passage is not translated according 
to the distinct and proper meanings of the words shall and wn'M; " Surely 
goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life; and 1 will 
dwell in the house of the Lord forever j" it ought to be, u Will follow 
me," and *' 1 shall dwell." — The foreigner who, as it is said, fell into the 
Thames, and cried out; " I will be drowned, no body shall help me;" 
made a sad misapplication of these auxiliaries.* 

These observations respecting the import of the verbs will and shall, must 
be understood of explicative sentences ; for when the sentence is interroga- 
tive, just the reverse, for the most part, takes place ; thus, '} I shall go ; you 
will go ;" express event only: but, " will you go ?" imparts intention ; and 
" shall I go V refers to the will of another. But, " He shall go," and 4< shall 
he go V both imply will ; expressing or referring to a command. 

When the verb is put in the subjunctive mood, the meaning of these aux- 

* From what is here remarked, the revisor is of opinion that will in the 
first person, and shall in the second and third persons of the future tenses, 
are incorrectly associated with the indicative mood, and should be transfer- 
red to the potential. He has not, however, felt himself at liberty, without 
further consideration, to make this change, though his convictions are on the 
side of its propriety and advantages. 



VERBS CONJUGATION. 57 

Uiaries likewise undergoes some alteration ; as the learner will readily per- 
ceive by a few examples : " He shall proceed ','' " You shall consent ;" " If 
you shall consent." These auxiliaries are sometimes interchanged, in the 
indicative and subjunctive moods, to convey the same meaning of the aux- 
iliary: as, ': He vnll not return 5" ll If he shall return '" " He shall not re- 
turn 5" "If he will not return." 

Would, primarily denotes inclination of will ; and should, obligation : but 
they both vary their import, and are often used to express simple event. 

Conjugation of the inactive verb, to be, and the regular 
verb, to love. 

§44. Verbs are called regular, when they form their 
past tense of the indicative mood, and their perfect parti- 
ciple, by the addition of ed to the verb in the present tense, 
or d only when the verb ends in e : as, 

Present Tense. Past Tense. Perfect Participle. 

I love I loved Loved 

I favor I favored Favored 

When a verb does not form its past tense and perfect par- 
ticiple in this manner, it is called an irregular verb : as, 

Present Tense. Past Tense. Perfect Participle. 

I am I was Been 

I strike I struck Struck 

Those tenses are called simple tenses, which are formed of the principal, 
without an auxiliary verb: as, " 1 love, I loved." The compound tenses are 
such as cannot be formed without an auxiliary verb : as, " I have loved \ I 
had loved ; I shall or will love 5 I may love 5 I may be loved 3 I may have 
been loved .5" &c. These compounds are, however, to be considered as 
only different forms of the same verb. 

All regular verbs are conjugated after the manner of 
to love. 

Note. We have arranged the conjugation of the verb to be. and that of 
the verb to love, both in the active and passive voice, side by side, in order 
that the student may the more readily observe their relative connection. He 
will not fail to notice that the passive voice is the same as the verb to be 
throughout with the perfect participle, loved, annexed. The conjugation of 
to be, is first to be learned ; next that of to love in the active voice ; to love in 
the passive will then be perfectly simple. 

The moods and tenses both in the active and passive voices, are conjugated 
at large, that learners may have no doubts or misapprehensions respecting 
their particular forms. They to whom the subject of grammar is entirely 
new, and young persons especially, are much more readily and effectually 
instructed, by seeing the parts of a subject so essential as the verb, unfolded 
and spread before them, in all their varieties, than by being generally and 
cursorily informed of the manner in which they may be exhibited. The time 
employed by the scholars, in consequence of this display of the verbs, is of 
small moment, compared wish the advantages which they will probably de- 
rive from the plan. 



58 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Conjugation of to be, and to love. 
Prirncipal Parts. 





Inactive. Active. 


Passive. 


Pres. Infinitive. 


To be To love 




To be loved 


Past Tense. 


1 was I loved 




I was loved 


Pres. Particip. 


Being Loving 




Being loved 


Perf. Particip. 


Been Loved 
Indicative Mood* 

PRESENT TENSE. 




Loved 


Inactive. 


Active. 




Passive. 


Singular. 


Singular. 
1 Pers. I love* 




Singular. 


1 Pers. 1 am 


1 


Pers. 1 am loved 


2 Pers. You are 


2 Pers. You love 


5 


Pers. You are loved 


3 Pers. He is 


3 Pers. He loves 


3 


Pers. He is loved 


Plural. 


Plural. 




Plural. 


1 Pers. We are 


1 Pers. We love 


1 


Pers. We are loved 


2 Pers- You are 


2 Pers. You love 


2 


Pers. You are loved 


3 Pers. They are 


3 Pers. They love 


3 Pers. They are loved 




PAST TENSE. 






Singular. 


Singular. 




Singular, 


1. I was 


1. 1 loved* 


1. 


I was loved 


2. You were, or wast 2. You loved 


2 


You were, or wast 


3. He was 


3. He loved 




loved 






3 


. He was loved 



*ln the present and past tenses active voice, we use a different form 
of the verb, when we mean to express energy and positiveness : as, I do 
love j You do love ; he does love j we do love j they do love : I did love 5 
you did love 3 he did love , we did love , they did love. 

fAs you was originally in the plural number, grammarians insist that it 
must still be restricted to that number. But national usage rejects the ar- 
bitrary principle. The true principle, on which all language is built, re- 
jects it. What fundamental rule have we to dispose of words, but this, 
that when a word signifies one, or unity, it belongs to the singular number ? 
If a word, once exclusively plural, becomes, by universal use, the Bign of 
individuality, it must take its place in the singular number* That this is a 
fact with you, is proved by national usage, To assign the substitute to its 
verb, is to invert the order of things. The verb must follow its nominative 
— if that denotes unity, so does the verb. 

" When you was at Athens, you attended the schools of the philoso- 
phers.' 7 — Cicero, Tusc. Quest. Trans, p. 2. 

" On that happy day when you was given to the world." — Dodd's Massil- 
lon, Serm. 1. 

u Unless you was ill." — BosvielVs Life of J. -/E. 68. 

" You was on the spot where your enemy was found killed." — Guthrie 1 s 
Quinctilian, b. 2. 

** You was in hopes to have succeeded to the inheritance." — lbm. b. 5; 

** Whenyou was here comforting me." — Pope's Let. 

" 1 am as well as when you was here." — Gay's Let to Swift, 

" Why was you glad ?" — BoswelVs Life of Johnson. 

These writers did not commit mistakes in the use of the verb after you ; 



VERBS CONJUGATION. 



59 





Inactive. 




Active. 




Passive. 


1. 

2 
3. 


Plural. 
We were 
You were 
They were 


1 
2 
3. 


Plural. 
We loved 
You loved 
They loved 

PERFECT TENSE. 


1. 
2 

3. 


Plural. 
We were loved 
You were loved 
They were loved 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular, 
I have been 
You have been 
He has been 


1. 

2. 

3. 


Singular. 
I have loved 
You have loved 
He has loved 


1 
2. 

3 


Singular. 
I have been loved 
You have been 

loved 
He has been loved 


1. 

2. 

3. 


Plural. 
We have been 
You have been 

They have been 


1. 
2. 

3. 


Plural. 
We have loved 
You have loved 

They have loved 

PRIOR PAST. 


J. 

2. 

3. 


Plural. 
We have been loved 
You have been 

loved 
They have been 

loved 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular. 
I had been 
You had been 
He had been 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Singular. 
I had loved 
You had loved 
He had loved 


1. 
2, 
3. 


Singular. 
I had been loved 
You had been loved 
He had been loved 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Plural. 
We had been 
You had been 
They had been 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Plural. 
We had loved 
You had loved 
They had loved 

FUTURE TENSE. 


1. 

2. 
3.' 


Plural. 
We had been loved 
You had been loved 
rhey had been loved 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular. 
I shall or will be 1. 
You shall 0r will be2. 
He shall or will be 

3. 


Singular! 
J shall or will love 1. 
You shall or will 

love 2. 
He shall or will 

love 3. 


Singular. 
I shall or will be 

loved 
You shall or will be 

loved 
He shall or will be 

loved 



they wrote the language as established by national usage — the founda- 
tion of all language. So is the practice in the United States — not merely 
popular usage, though this, when general, is respectable authority, but the 
practice of men of letters. 

u Where was you standing during the transaction V 

11 How far was you from the defendant V 1 

"How far was you from the parties V 7 — Judge Parker. Trial of Sel- 
fridge, p;53i 

" Was you acquainted with the defendant at college V 7 — Mr. Dexter. 
Imp. p. 60. 

" Was you there when the pistol was fired ?" — Mr. Gore. Ibm. 60. 

" Was you in the office ?"— Att. Gen. Ibm. 68.— N. Webster's Gram. 

C4 



60 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Inactive. Active. Passive. 

Plural. Plural. Plural. 

1. We shall or will 1. We shall or will 1. We shall or will be 

be love loved 

2. You shall or will 2. You shall or will 2. You shall or will be 

be love loved 

3. They shall or will 3. They shall or will 3. They shall or will 

be love be loved 



Singular. 

1. I shall have been 

2. You shall or will 

have been 

3. He shall or will 3 

have been 



PRIOR FUTURE. 

Singular. Singular. 

1. 1 shall have loved 1. I shall have 

2. You shall or will loved 
have loved 2. You shall 

will 



been 



He shall or 
have loved 



Plural. 

1. We shall have been 1. 

2. You shall or will 

have been 2. 

3. They shall or will 

have been 3. 



or will 
have been loved. 
3. He shall or will 
have been loved 

Plural. Plural. 

We shall have 1. We shall have been 

loved loved 

You shall or will 2. You shall or will 

have loved have been loved 

They shall or will 3. They shall or will 

have loved. have been loved 



Subjunctive Mood. 



Singular. 

1. If I am 

2. If you are 

3. If he is 

Plural. 

1. If we are 

2. If you are 

3. If they are 



Singular. 

1. If 1 be 

2. If you be 

3. If he be 

Plural. 

1. If we be 

2. If you be 

3. If they be 



PRESENT TENSE. 
Common Form. 

Singular. 

1. If I love 

2. If you love 
3* If he loves 

Plural. 

1. If we love 

2. If you love 

3. If tbey love 

Subjunctive Form. 

Singular. 

1. If Hove 

2. If you love 

3. If he love. 

Plural. 

1. If we love 

2. If you love 

3. If they love 



Singular. 

1. If I am loved 

2. If you are loved 

3. If he is loved 

Plural. 

1. If we are loved 

2. If you are loved 

3. If they are loved 



Singular. 

1. If I be loved 

2. If you be loved 

3. If he be loved 

Plural. 

1. If we be loved 

2. If you be loved 

3. If they be loved 



VERBS — CONJUGATION* 



61 



PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Singular. 

1. If I was 1. If I loved 

2. If you were or was 2. If you loved 

3. If he was 3. If he loved 



Plural. 

1. If we were 

2. If you were 

3. If they were 



Plural. 

1. If we loved 

2. If you loved 

3. If they loved 



Singular. 

1. If I was loved 

2. If you were or was 

loved 

3. If he was loved 

Plural. 

1. If we were loved 

2. If you were loved 

3. If they were loved 



Singular. 

1. If I were* 

2. If you were 

3. If he were 

Plural. 

1. If we were 

2. If you were 

3. If they were 



Or thus. 
Singular. 

1. If 1 loved 

2. If you loved 

3. If he loved. 

Plural. 

1. If we loved 

2. If you loved 
3* If they loved 

PERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. 

1. If I were loved 

2. If you were loved 

3. if he were loved 

Plural. 

1. If we were loved 

2. If you were loved 

3. If they were loved 



Singular. Singulars Singular. 

1. If I have been 1. If 1 have loved 1. If I have been loved 

2. If you have been 2. If you have loved 2. If you have been 

loved 
3* If he has been 3. If he has loved 3. If he has been 

loved 

PluraL Plural. Plural. 

1. If we have been 1. If we have loved 1. If we have been 

loved 

2. If you have been 2. If you have loved 2. If you have been 

loved 

3. If they have been 3. If they have loved 3. If they have been 

loved 



Singular. 

1. If I had been 

2. If you had been 

3. If he had been 



PRIOR PAST TENSE. 

Singular. 

1. If I had loved 

2. If you had loved 

3. If he had loved 



Singular. 

1. If I had been loved 

2. If you had been 
loved 

3. If he had been loved 



* u If I were/' supposes I am not ; " If I were not/ 7 supposes I am. 

D 



62 



ETYMOLOGY/. 



Plural. 

1. If we had been 

2. If you had been 

3. If they had been 



Singular. 

1. If I shall or will be 1. 

2. If you shall or will 

be 2. 

3. If he shall or will 

be 3. 

Plural. 
2. If we shall or will 1. 
be 

2. If you shall or will 2. 

be 

3. If they shall or will 3. 

be 



Plural. Plural, 

1. If we had loved 1. If we had been loved 

2. If you had loved 2. If you had been 

3. If they had loved loved 

3. If they had been 
loved 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Singular. 

If 1 shall or will I. If I shall or will be 

love loved 

If you shall or will 2. If you shall or will 

love be loved 

if he shall or will 3. If he shall or will 

love be loved 

Plural. Plural. 

If we shall or will 1. If we shall or will 

love be loved 

If you shall or will 2. If you shall or will 

love be loved 
If they shall or will 3. If they shall or will 

love be loved 



PRIOR FUTURE TENSE. 



Singular. Singular. 

If I shall have been 1 . If I shall have loved 1. 
If you shall or will 2. If you shall or will 

have been have loved 2. 

If he shall or will 3. If he shall or will 

have been have loved 



Singular. 
If I shall have been 

loved 
If you shall or will 
have been loved 
3. If he shall or will 
have been loved 

Plural. Plural. Plural. 

1. If we shall have 1. If we shall have 1. If we shall have 

been loved been loved 

2. If you shall or will 2. If you shall or 2. If you shall or will 

have been will have loved have been loved 

3. If they shall or 3. If they shall or 3. If they shall or will 

will have been will have loved have been loved 

It may be of use to the scholar, to remark, in this place, that though the 
conjunction if is affixed to the verb, any other conjunction proper lor the 
subjunctive mood, may, with equal propriety, be occasionally annexed. 
The instance given is sufficient to explain the subject : more would be tedi- 
ous, and tend to embarrass the learner. 

We have admitted in this mode, in accordance with the practice of most 
grammarians, a subjunctive form of the present tense. It is,however, strongly 
to be questioned whether the principles of ourlanguage, or its strict construc- 
tion, warrant any form of this kind. It differs from the present in significa- 
tion, only by implying future time, and therefore may properly be considered a 
contraction of the future: thus, " If he love," " if they love/ ; &c is the same 



VERBS CONJUGATION. 



63 



m sense as, u if he shall or will love," " if they shall or will love, )f &c. It 
should further be remarked that the auxiliary should is off en suppressed : as, 
" If he love," that is, if he should love. These contractions are found most 
frequently among the poets, and perhaps are allowable no where else, save 
it be in familiar conversation. 

In the subjunctive mode, there is a peculiarity in the tenses which should 
be noticed. When I say, if it rains, it is understood that I am uncertain of 
the fact, at the time of speaking. But when I say, " If it rained, we should 
be obliged to seek shelter," it is not understood lhat I am uncertain of the 
fact; on the contrary, it is understood that I am certain it does not rain at 
the time of speaking. Or if I say, " if it did not rain, I would take a walk," 
I convey the idea that it does rain at the moment of speaking. This form of 
our tenses in the subjunctive mood has never been the subject of much no- 
tice, nor ever received its due explanation and arrangement. For this hy- 
pothetical verb is actually a present tense, or at least indefinite, — it certainly 
does not belong to past time. It is further to be remarked, that a negative 
sentence always implies an affirmative — "if it did not rain," implies that it 
does rain. 0*the contrary, an affirmative sentence implies a negative — " if 
it did rain," implies that it does not. 

In the past time, a similar distinction exists 3 for " if it rained yesterday," 
denotes uncertainty in the speaker's mind — but," if it bad not rained yester- 
day," implies a certainty that it did rain." 

It may be proper to remark, that there are instances in this mood, when a. 
conjunction, denoting condition, is not expressed : but in all such cases it is 
to be understood : as, " Were I to speak," that is, " If I were to speak ;" 
il Had I gone," that is, " If I had gone." Examples of this kind are conju- 
gated as follows : 





PAST TENSE* 








Singular. 


Plural. 






1. Were I 


1. Were we 






2. Were you 


2. Were you 






3. Were he 


3. Were they 






PRIOB PAST TENSE. 






Singular. 


Plural. 






1. Had 1 loved 


1. Had we loved 






2. Had you k>ved 


2. Had you loved 






4. Had he loved 


3. Had they loved 






Potential Mood. 






PRESENT TENSE. 






Singular, Singular, 


Singular. 




1. 


I may can or must 1. I may can or must 1. I may can or must 




be love 


be loved 




2. 


You may can or 2. You may can 


or 2. You may can 


or 




must be must love 


must be loved 




3. 


He may can or 3. He may can 


or 3. He may can 


or 




must be must love 


must be loved 






Plural. Plural. 


Plural. 




1. 


We may can or 1. We may can 


or 1. We may can 


or 




must be must love 


must be loved 




2. 


You may can or 2. You may can 


or 2. You may can 


or 




must be. must love 


must be loved 




3. 


They may can or 3. They may can 


or 3. They may can 


or 




must be must love 


must be loved 





64 



ETYMOLOGY. 



PAST TENSE. 



Singular. 

1. I might could 
would or should 
be 

2. You might could 
would or should 
be 

3. He might could 
would or should 
be 



Singular, 

1. 1 might could 
would or should 
love 

2. You might could 
would or should 
love 

3. He might could 
would or should 
love 



Singular. 

1. I might could 
would or should be 
loved 

2. You might could 
would or should be 
loved 

3. He might could 
would or should be 
loved 



Plural. 

1. We might could 
would or should 
be 

2. You might could 
would or should 
be 

3. They might could 
would or should 
be 



Plural. 

1. We might could 
would or should 
love 

2. You might could 
would or should 
love 

3. They might could 
would or should 
love 



Plural. 

1. We might could 
would or should be 
loved 

2. You might could 
would or should be 
loved 

3. They might could 
would or should be 
loved 



PERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. Singular. Singular. 

1. I may can or must J. I may can or must 1. 1 may can or must 
have been have loved have been loved 

2. You may can or 2. You may can or 2. You may can or 
must have been must have loved must have been lov- 

3. He may can or 3. He may can or ed 

must have been must have loved 3. He may can or 

must have been lov- 
ed 



Plural. Plural. Plural. 

1. We may can or 1. We may can or 1. We may can or 
must have been must have loved must have been lov- 

2. You may can or 2. You may can or ed 

must have been must have loved 2. You may can or 

3. They may can or 3. They may can or must have been lov- 
must have been must have loved ed 

3. They may can or 
must have been lov- 
ed 



VERBS — CONJUGATION. 



65 



Singular. 

1. I might could 1 
would or should 
have been 

2. You might could 2 
would or should 
have been 

3. He might could 3 
would or should 
have been 

Plural. 
3. We might could 1, 
would or should 
have been 

2. You might could 2. 
would or should 
have been 

3. They might could 3. 
would or should 
have been 



PRIOR PAST TENSE. 

Singular, 
J might could 

would or should 

have loved 
. You might could 

would or should 

have loved 
. He might could 

would er should 

have loved 



Plural. 

We might could 
would or should 
have loved 

You might could 
would or should 
have loved 
They might could 
would or should 
have loved 



Singular. 
1. 1 might could would 
or should have been 
loved 

2. You might could 
would or should 
have been loved 

3. He might could 
would or should 
have been loved 

Plural. 

1. We might couki 
would or should 
have been loved 

2. You might could 
would or should 
have been loved 

3. They might could 
would or should 
have been loved 



Singular. 
2. Be you or do you be 

Plural. 
2. Be you or do you be 



Imperative Mood. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Singular. 

2. Love you or do you 2. Be you loved or do 

love you be loved 

Plural. Plural. 

2. Love you or do you 2. Be you loved or do 

love " you be loved 

Infinitive Mood* 



Pres. To be 

Perf To have been 



Pres. To love. 
Perf. To have loved 



Pres. To be loved 
Perf. To have been lov- 
ed. 



^Participles. 

Pres. Loving Pres. Being loved 

Perf. Loved Perf. Loved 

ing Compound Perf. Having Compound Perf Havir 
loved been loved 



Pres. Being 
Perf Been 
Compound Perf Hav 
been 

The active verb may be conjugated differently, by adding its present or 
active participle to the auxiliary verb to be, through all its moods and tenses : 
as, instead of " I teach, you teach, he teaches/' &c, we may say, " I 
am teaching, you are teaching, he is teaching," &c. J and instead of c( I 
taught," &c, " u I was teaching, 7 ' &c, and so on, through all the variations 
of the auxiliary. This mode of conjugation has, on particular occasions, a 
peculiar propriety, and contributes to the harmony and precision of the lan- 
guage. These forms of expression are adapted to particular acts, not to 
general habits, or affections of the mind. They are very frequently applied 
to inactive verbs : as, " I am musitag 5 he is sleeping." 

D2 



66 ETYMOLOGY. 

The inactive verb is conjugated like the active ; but as it partakes some- 
what of the nature of the passive, it admits, in many instances, of the pas- 
sive form, retaining still the inactive signification : as, '* I am arrived ;" " I 
was gone ;" " I am grown." The auxiliary verb am, was, in this case, pre- 
cisely defines the time of the action or event, but does not change the nature 
of it ; the passive form still expressing, not properly a passion, but only a 
state or condition of being. 

The student will have observed ere this, that the Indicative and Subjunc- 
tive moods have each the six tenses ; that the Potential has but four, the In- 
finitive but two, and the Imperative but one. He will also have noticed, 
that except in the Present and Past tenses, the Subjunctive mood differs not 
in the least from the Indicative, save in taking before it if, or some other 
word implying doubt or uncertainty. 

PRACTICAL EXERCISE— No. XVII. 

[The student is required to name the verbs and tell the mood and tense of 
each. The teacher may require him to conjugate the verbs, mention their 
classes, number and person, or not, at his discretion.] 

11 It is difficult to discover the spirit and design of some laws." 
" Printing was first brought into England by William Caxton, 
1741." 

" We should be daily employed in doing good." 
M Imprudent associations disqualify us for instructing or improv- 
ing others." 

11 A fop is despised by every one save himself." 
" And forgive us our trespasses as we forgive those who tres- 
pass against us." 

" None can forgive sins but God only." 

41 We must not go in the way of evil men, if we would not be 
contaminated by them." 

" Virtue is generally praised : it would be generally practiced 
also if men were wise." 

" A nail well driven will support a great weight." 
11 The ambitious are always seeking to aggrandise themselves." 
M Science may raise you to eminence, but religion alone can give 
you true felicity." 

«• We should pause and reflect, before we commence any great 
undertaking." 

11 The slanderer is too vile to make or deserve friaads." 

OTHER FORMS OF CONJUGATION. 

§45. Having in the preceding pages given the student an expanded 
view of the manner in which verbs are conjugated affirmatively ; he will now 
be able to understand with perfect facility the other forms of conjugation, 
A synopsis of them, therefore, or the first person singular in each tense, is all 
that will be required. 

I. Conjugation o/ to be, and to love, Interrogatively. 

A verb is conjugated interrogatively t by placing the nom- 
inative after the verb when alone, or after the first auxili- 
ary, when one or more are used. 



VERBS CONJUGATION. 



67 



Indicative Mood. 

Pres. Am I, or be 1 ? Love I, or do I love 1 
Past. Was I, or were 1 ? Loved I, or did I love ? 
Per/. Have I been ? Have I loved ? 
Prior Past. Had I been? Had I loved ? 
Fut. Shall or will I be ? Shall or will I love t 
Prior jFta. Shall I have Shall I have loved 1 
been? 

Potential Mood. 



Am I or be 1 loved ? 
Was I or were I loved ? 
Have I been loved ? 
Had I been loved ? 
Shall or will I be loved ? 
Shall I have been loved ? 



be 



Pres. May can or must May can or must I love ? May can or must I 
I be ? loved ? 

Past. Might could would Might could wouJd or Might could would or 
or should I be 1 should 1 love ? should I be loved ? 

Per/. May can or must I May can or must 1 have May can or must I have 
have been ? loved ? been loved ? 

Prior Past. Might could Might could would or Might could would or 
would or should I should I have loved? should I have been 

have been 1 loved 1 

The other moods are wanting: 

II. Conjunction of to be, and to love, Negatively. 

A verb is conjugated negatively, by placing the adverb 
not, after the verb in the simple tenses, and in compound, 
between the auxiliary and the verb, or between the last two 
auxiliaries, or the last two but one. 



Present. I am not 
Past. I was not 
Perf. I have not been 
Prior Past. I had not 

been 
Future. I shall or will 

not be 
Prior Fut. I shall not 

have been 



Present. If I am not 
Past. If 1 was not 
Perf. If I have not 

been 
Prior Past. If I had 

not been 
Fut. If I shall or will 

not be 
Prior Fut. If 1 shall 

not have been 



Indicative Mood. 

I love not 
I loved not 
1 have not loved 
I had not loved 

1 shall or will not 

love 
I shall or will not be 

loved 

Subjunctive Mood. 

If I love not 

If I loved not 

If 1 have not loved 

If I had not loved 

If I shall or will not 

love 
If I shall not have 

loved 



1 am not loved 

1 was not loved 

I have not been loved 

I had not been loved 

I shall or will not be 

loved 
I shall not have been 

loved 



If I am not loved 

If I was not loved 

If I have not been 

loved 
If I had not been loved 

If I shall or will not 

be loved 
If I shall not have 

been loved 



D3 



68 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Potential Mood. 

I may can or must 

not love 
1 might could would 

or should not 

love 
I may can or must 

not have loved 

1 might could would 
or should not 
have loved 

Imperative Mood. 

Be not or do not be Love not or do not 
love 
Infinitive Mood. 

Pres. Not to be Not to love 

Perf. Not to have been Not to have loved 



Pres. 1 may can or 

must not be 
Past. 1 might could 

would or should not 

be 
Perf. I may can or 

must not have 

been 
Prior Past. 1 might 

could would or 

should not have been 



1 may can or must not 

be loved 
I might could would 

or should not be 

loved 
I may can or must 

not have been loved 

I might could would or 
should not have 
been loved 

Be not loved or do not 
be loved 

Not to be loved 

Not to have been loved 



III. Conjugation of to be, and to have, Interrogatively 

and Negatively. 

Indicative Mood, 

Pres. Am 1 not or be Love 1 not or do I not Am I not loved or be 



I not ? 
Past. Was I not ? 
Perf. Have I not 

been ? 



love ? 
Loved I not or did 

not love ? 
Have I not loved ? 



I not loved ? 
I Was I not loved? 



Prior Past. Had 1 not Had 1 not loved ? 

been ? 
Fut. Shall or will I Shall or will I 

not be ? love ? 

Prior Fut. Shall 1 not Shall I not have 



Have 1 not been loved? 
Had 1 not been loved ? 



I not 



loved ? 
Potential Mood. 

May can or must I 

not love ? 
Might could would 

or should 1 not 

love ? 
May can or must L 

not have loved i 

Might could would 
or should I not 
have loved ? 



not Shall or will 
have loved? 
Shall I not have been 
loved ? 



have been ? 

Pres. May can or 

must I not be ? 
Past. Might could 

would or should 1 

not be ? 
Perf. May can or 

must 1 not have 

been ? 
Prior Past. Might 

could would or 

should 1 not have 
been ? 

The other moods are wanting. 

It will be observed that this form of conjugation is simply a combination 
of the Interrogative and Negative. 



May can or mustl not 

be loved ? 
Might could would or 

should 1 not be 

loved i 
May can or must I not 

have been loved 

Might could would or 
should 1 not have 
been loved ? 



VERBS CONJUGATION. 69 

IV. Synopsis with thou. 

For the benefit of those who wish to retain the pronoun thou, in the conju- 
gation of verbs, the following synopsis is given. The pupil can take it sep- 
arately, or be taught it in connection with the other persons of the verb, by 
substituting thou for you, in the foregoing conjugation. 

Indicative Mood. 

Pres. Thou art Thou lovest Thou art loved 

Past. Thou wast Thou lovedst Thou wast loved 

Perf. Thou hast been Thou hast loved Thou hast been loved 

Prior Past. Thou hadst Thou hadst loved Thou hadst been loved 

been 

Fut. Thou shalt or Thou shalt or wilt Thou shalt or wilt be 

wilt be love loved 

Prior Fut. Thou wilt Thou wilt have loved Thou wilt have been 

have been loved 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Pres. If thou art If thou lovest If thou art loved 

Past. If thou wast If thou lovedst If thou wast loved 

Perf. If thou hast If thou hast loved If thou hast been loved 

been 

Prior Past. If thou If thou hadst loved If thou hadst been 

hadst been loved 

Fut. If thou shalt or If thou shalt or wilt If thou shall or wilt be 

wilt be love loved 

Prior Fut. If thou If thou shalt have If thou shalt have been 

shalt have been loved loved 

Potential Mood. 

Pres. Thou mayst or Thou mayst or canst Thou mayst or canst 
canst be love be loved 

Past. Thou mightst Thou mightst couldst Thou mightst couldst 
couldst wouldst or wouldst or shouldst wouldst or shouldst 
shouldstbe love be loved 

Perf. Thou mayst or Thou mayst or canst Thou mayst or canst 
canst have been have loved have been loved 

Prior Past. Thou Thou mightst couldst Thou mightst couldst 
mightst couldst wouldst or shouldst wouldst or shouldst 
wouldst or shouldst have loved have been loved 

have been 

OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

§46. Irregular Verbs are those which do not form their 
imperfect tense, and their perfect participle, by the addition 
of d or ed to the verb : as, 



Present. 


Imperfect, 


Perfect Part. 


begin 


1 began 


begun 


know 


I knew 


known 



70 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Past. 


Perfect Part. 


abode 


abode 


sold 


sold 



Irregular Verbs are of various kinds, 

1 Such as have the present and past tenses, and perfect 
participle the same : as, 

Present; Past. Pefect Part. 

Cost cost cost 

Put put put 

2. Such as have the past tense, and perfect participle the 
same : as, 

Present. 
Abide 
Sell 

3. Such as have the past tense, and perfect participle, 
different : as, 

Present. 
Arise 
Blow 

Many verbs become irregular by contraction : as, " feed, 
fed; leave, left;" others by the termination en : as, "fall, 
fell, fallen ;" others by the termination ght, and a change 
of the vowel: as, ** buy, bought; teach, taught," &,c. 

The following list of the irregular verbs will, it is presum- 
ed, be found both comprehensive and accurate. 



Past. 


Perfect Part 


arose 


arisen 


blew 


blown 







Perf. or Pass. 




Perf. or Pass. 


Present 


Past. 


Part. 


Present. 


Past. 


Part. 


Abide 


abode 


abode 


Choose 


chose 


chosen, chose 


Am 


was 


been 


C\ea.ve t to split cleft, clove 


cleft, clove 


Arise 


arose 


arisen 


Cling 


clung 


clung 


Awake 


awoke, r 


awaked 


Clothe 


clothed 


clad,r 


Bear,£o bring bare 


born 


Come 


came, come 


come 


forth 






Cost 


cost 


cost 


Bear, to carr 


ybore 


borne 


Creep 


crept 


crept 


Beat 


beat 


beaten, beat 


Cut 


cut 


cut 


Begin 


began ,begun 


begun 


Dare, to ven- 


durst 


dared 


Bend 


bent, r 


bent, r 


ture 






Bereave 


bereft, r 


bereft, r 


Deal 


dealt 


dealt 


Beseech 


besought 


besought 


Dig 


dug, r 


dug, r 


Bid 


bid, bade 


bidden, bid 


Do 


did 


done 


Bind 


bound 


bound 


Draw 


drew 


drawn 


Bite 


bit 


bitten, bit 


Drive 


drove 


driven, drove 


Bleed 


bled 


bled 


Drink 


drank 


drunk 


Blow 


blew 


blown 


Dwell 


dwelt, r 


dwelt, r 


Break 


broke 


broken, brokeEat 


eat or ate 


eaten, eat 


Breed 


bred 


bred 


Fall 


fell 


fallen 


Bring 


brought 


brought 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Build 


built, r 


built 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Burst 


burst, r 


burst, r 


Fight 


fought 


fought 


Buy 


bought 


bought 


Find 


found 


found 


Cast 


cast 


cast 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Catch 


caught, r 


caught, r 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


Chide 


chid 


chid 


Fly 


flew 


flow n 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



71 







Pcrf. or Pass. 




Perf. or Pass. 


Present. 


Past. 


Part. 


Present. 


Past. 


Part. 


Forget 


forgot 


forgotten 


Shoe 


shod 


shod 






forgot 


Shoot 


shot 


shot 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Shrink 


shrunk 


shrunk 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen, froze Shred 


shred 


shred 


Get 


got 


got 


Shut 


shut 


shut 


Gild 


gilt, r 


gilt, r 


Sing 


sung, sang 


sung 


Gird 


girt, r 


girt, r 


Sink 


sunk 


sunk 


Give 


gave 


given 


Sit 


sat 


sat 


Go 


went 


gone 


Slay 


slew, r. 


slain, r. 


Grave 


graved 


graven, r 


Sleep 


slept 


slept 


Grind 


ground 


ground 


Slide 


slid 


slid 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Sling 


slung 


slung 


Have 


had 


had 


Slink 


slunk 


slunk 


Hang 


hung, r 


hung, r 


Slit 


slit, r. 


slit, or slitted 


Hear 


heard 


heard 


Smite 


smote 


smitten, smit 


Hew 


hewed 


hewn, r 


Sow 


sowed 


sown, r. 


Hide 


hid 


hidden, hid 


Speak 


spoke 


spoken,spoke 


Hit 


hit 


hit 


Speed 


sped 


sped 


Hold 


held 


held 


Spend 


spent 


spent 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


Spill 


spilt, r. 


spilt, r. 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Spin 


spun 


spun 


Knit 


knit, r 


knit, r 


Spit 


spit 


spit 


Know 


knew 


known 


Split 


split 


split 


Lade 


laded 


laden 


Spread 


spread 


spread 


Lay 


laid 


laid 


Spring 


sprung 


sprung 


Lead 


led 


led 


Stand 


stood 


stood 


Leave 


left 


left 


Steal 


stole 


stolen, stole 


Lend 


lent 


lent 


Stick 


stuck 


stuck 


Let 


let 


let 


Sting 


stung 


stung 


Lie, to lie 


lay 


lain 


Stink 


stunk 


stunk 


down l 






Stride 


strode, or 


strid 


Lose 


lost 


lost 




strid 




Make 


made 


made 


Strike 


struck 


struck 


Meet 


met 


met 


String 


strung 


strung 


Mow 


mowed 


mown, r. 


Strive 


strove 


striven 


Pay 


paid 


paid 


Strow 


strowed 


strown, r 


Put 


put 


put 


Swear 


swore 


sworn 


Read 


read 


read 


Sweat 


sweat 


sweat 


Rend 


rent 


rent 


Swell 


swelled 


swollen, r. 


Rid 


rid 


rid 


Swim 


swum, swam swum 


Ride 


rode 


rode, rid 


Swing 


swung 


swung 


Ring 


rung, rang 


rung 


Take 


took 


taken 


Rise 


rose 


risen 


Teach 


taught 


taught 


Rive 


rived 


riven 


Tear 


tore 


torn 


Run 


ran, run 


run 


Tell 


told 


told 


Saw 


sawed 


sawn, r. 


Think 


thought 


thought 


Say 


said 


said 


Throw 


threw 


thrown 


See 


saw 


seen 


Thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


Seek 


sought 


sought 


Tread 


trod 


trod,trodden 


Sell 


sold 


sold 


Wear 


wore 


worn 


Send 


sent 


sent 


Weave 


wove 


wove,woven 


Set 


set 


set 


Weep 


wept 


wept 


Shake 


shook 


shaken , 


Win 


won 


won 






shook 


Wind 


wound 


wound 


Shear 


sheared 


shorn, r. 


Wring 


wrung, r 


wrung, r 


Shed 


shed 


shed 


Write 


wrote 


writ, written 


Shine 


shone, r. 


shone, r. 








Show 


showed 


shown, r. 









In the preceding list, some of the verbs will be found to be conjugated reg- 
ularly, as well as irregularly 5 and those which admit of the regular form are 
marked with an r. There is a preference to be given to some of these, which 
custom and judgment must determine. 



72 ETYMOLOGY. 

Such verbs as are irregular only in familiar writing and discourse, and 
which are improperly terminated by t, instead of ed, have not been inserted 5 
as, learnt, spelt, spilt, &c. 

These should be avoided in every sort of composition. " It is, however, 
proper to observe, that some contractions of ed into t, are unexceptionable ; 
and others, the only established forms of expression: as crept, gilt, &c, and 
lost, felt, slept, &c. These allowable and necessary contractions must there- 
fore be carefully distinguished by the learner, from those that are exception- 
able. The words which are obsolete have also been omitted, that the learn- 
er might not be induced to mistake them for words in present use. Such 
are, wreathen, drunken, holpen, molten, gotten, holden, bounden. &c,: and 
swang, wrang, slank, stravved, gat, brake, tare, ware, &c. 

There is a disposition manifested, which deserves encouragement, to make 
all verbs, so far as their structure will allow, regular. Hence the number of 
irregular verbs within the last century, has, considerably diminished. Thrive, 
work^wax, and some others, have now the regular form, and we seldom hear 
the obsolete terms, throve, throven. waxen and wrought. It would be well if 
some farther changes of this nature were made. Wherever the struc- 
ture of a verb will admit of the regular terminations, it is very desirable that 
these should be used in preference to the old forms, until custom and respec- 
table usage shall render the latter obsolete. 

The following observations by Dr. Webster, merit respectful attention: 
" Bishop Lowlhj says he, has attempted to revive the use of many of the 
obsolescent past tenses and participles, for which he has, and I think de- 
servedly, incurred the severe animadversions of eminent critics. " Is 
it not surprising (says Campbell on Rhetoric, b. ii. ch. 2.) that one of 
Lowth's penetration should think a single person entitled to revive a form of 
inflection in a particular word, which had been rejected by all good writers 
of every denomination, for more than a hundred and fifty years !" — This 
writer declares what Lowth has advanced on the use of the past tense and 
participle, to be inconsistent with the very first principles of grammar. He 
observes justly that authority is every thing in language, and that this author- 
ity consists in reputable, national, present usage. 

Independent of authority, however, there are substantial reasons in the 
language itself for laying aside the participles ending with en, and for remo- 
ving the differences between the past time and participle. In opposition to 
the opinion of Lowth, who regrets that our language has so few inflections, 
and maintains that we should preserve all we have, I think it capable of dem- 
onstration that the differeHCes between the past time and pai ticiple of the 
past tense of our irregular verbs, is one of the greatest inconveniences in the 
language. If we used personal terminations to form our moods and lenses, 
like the Greeks, it would be desirable that they should be carefully retained. 
But as we have no other than about a half a dozen different terminations, and 
are therefore obliged to form our moods and tenses by means of auxiliaries, the 
combination of these forms a part of the business of learning the language, 
which is extremely difficult and perplexing to foreigners. Even the natives 
of Scotland and Ireland do not always surmount the difficulty. This difficulty 
is very much augmented by the difference between the past tense and the 
participle. To remove this difference, in words in which popular usage has 
a lead, is to obviate, in a degree, this inconvenience. This is recommended 
by another circumstance — it will so far reduce our irregular verbs to an anal- 
ogy with the regular, whose past tense and participle of the perfect are alike. 
In a number of words, the dropping of n in the participle will make a con- 
venient distinction between the participle and the adjective ; for in the latter, 
we always retain the en — we always say a written treatise, a spoken lan- 
guage, a hidden mystery — though the best auihors write, a u mystery hid 
from ages f* " the language spoke in Bengal." 



ADVERBS. 73 

OF DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

§47. Defective Verbs are those which are used only 
in some of their moods and tenses. 
The principal of them are these : 

Perf. ParC. 



Present. 
Beware, 
Can, 


Past. 


could, 


May, 


might, 


Shall, 


siiould, 


Will, 


would, 


Must, 


must, 


Ought, 


ought, 




quoth, 



Beware, is not used in the indicative present. Must, has no variation. 
Ought, is invariable, except in the solemn style, where oughtest is sometimes 
found. That the verbs, must and ought, have both a present and past signi- 
fication, appears from the following sentences : "I must own that I am to 
blame;" " He must have been mistaken ;" "Speaking things which they 
ought not ;" " These ought ye to have done." Will, is sometimes used as 
a principal verb, and when so used, it is regular and complete. Quoth, is 
used only in ludicrous language, and scarcely deserves to be ranked among 
the verbsof the language. It is not varied and is confined to the third per- 
son singular. 

In most languages there are some verbs which are defective with respect 
to persons. These are denominated impersonal verbs. They are used only 
in the third person, because they refer to a subject peculiarly appropriated 
to that person : as, " It rains, it snows, it hails, it lightens, it thunders." But 
as the word impersonal implies a total absence of persons, it is improperly 
applied to those verbs which have a person : and hence it is manifest, that 
there is no such thing in English, nor indeed, in any language, as a kind of 
verbs really impersonal. 



CHAPTER VI. 



OF ADVERBS. 



§48. An Adverb is a part of speech joined to a verb, 
an adjective, and sometimes to another adverb, to express 
some quality or circumstance respecting it : as, " He reads 
well ;" " A truly good man ;" " He writes very correctly." 

Adverbs seem originally to have been contrived to express compendiously 
in one word, what must otherwise have required two or more : as, " He 
acted wisely," for, he acted with wisdom ; "prudently," for, with prudence j 
" He did it here," for, he did it in this place ; w exceedingly," for, to a great 
degree ; " often and seldom," for many, and for few times 5 " very," for, in 
an eminent degree, &c. 



74 ETYMOLOGY. 

Phrases, which perform the office of adverbs, may properly be termed 
Adverbial Phrases : as, " a few days ago," — " long since," — " now and 
then/ 7 — " in a short time/' — " by and by, ?? &c. 

There are many words in the English language that are sometimes used 
as adjectives, and sometimes as adverbs : as, " More men than women were 
there 5" or, " I am more dilligent than he," In the former sentence more is 
evidently an adjective, and in the latter, an adverb. There are others that 
are sometimes used as substantives, and sometimes as adverbs : as, "To- 
doy's lesson is longer than yesterday's j" here, to-day and yesterday are sub- 
stantives, because they are words that make sense of themselves, and admit 
besides of a possessive case: but in the phrase," He came home yesterday, and 
sets out again to-day," they are adverbs of time 5 because they answer to 
the question, when. The adverb much, is used as all three : as "Where 
much is given, much is required 3" " Much money has been expended ;" 
" It is much better to go than to stay." In the first of these sentences, much 
is a substantive j in the second, it is an adjective 5 and in the third, an ad- 
verb. In short, nothing but the sense can determine what they are. 

Classes of Adverbs. 

§49. Adverbs, though very numerous, may be reduced 
to certain classes, the chief of which are those of Number, 
Order, Place, Time, Quantity, Manner or Quality, Doubt, 
Affirmation, Negation, Interrogation, and Comparison. 

1. Of number : as, " Once, twice, thrice," &c. 

2. Of order: as 3 " First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, lastly, finally," #c. 

3. Of place; as, " Here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, somewhere, 
nowhere, nerein, whither, hither, thither, upward, downward, forward, back- 
ward, whence, hence, thence, whithersoever," &c. 

4. Of time. Of time present : as, " Now, to day," &c. Of time past: as, 
" Already, before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, hitherto, long since, long 
ago," &c. Of time to come : as, " To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, henceforth, 
henceforward, by and by, instantly,presently, immediately, straightway," &c. 
Of time indefinite : as, " Oft, often, oft-times, often-times, sometimes, soon, 
seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, always, when, then, ever, never, 
again," &c. 

5. Of quantity : as, "Much, little, sufficiently, how much, how great, 
enough, abundantly," <fec. 

6. Of manner or quality : as, " Wisely, foolishly, justly, unjustly, quickly, 
slowly," &c Adverbs of quality are the most numerous kind 3 and they 
are generally formed by adding the termination ly to an adjective or partici- 
ple, or changing le into ly : as, " Bad, badly 5 cheerful, cheerfully 3 able, 
ably 5 admirable, admirably." 

7. Of doubt : as, " Perhaps, peradventure, possibly, perchance." 

8. Of affirmation : as, u Verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubtless, certainly, 
yea, yes, surely, indeed, really," &c. 

9. Of negation: as,"JNay, no, not, by no means, not at all, in no wise,"<fec. 

10. Of interrogation : as, " How, why, wherefore, whether," &c 

11. Of comparison : as, "More, most^ better, best, worse, worst, less, 
least, very, almost, little, alike," &c. 

The distinction of adverbs into separate classes, as above, is of little con- 
sequence in itself. It is done rather to give the student a fuller view of the 
nature and uses of adverbs, than to be of any practical utility to him in pars- 
ing. The multitude of distinctions of this sort, which some grammarians 
have made, perplex more than aid the learner; 



ADVERBS. 75 

Comparison of Adverbs. 

§50. Adverbs are not varied except to express degrees 
of comparison. 

Adverbs of manner or quality are compared by more and 
most, less and least : as, slowly, more slowly, most slowly ; 
quickly, less quickly, least quickly. 

Some adverbs are compared after the manner of adjec- 
tives : soon, sooner, soonest ; often, oftener, oftenest. 

The following are irregularly compared : well, better, best ; forth, further, 
furthest, and some others. 

Very many adverbs, from their nature, cannot be compared, as those of 
number ; order, place, &c. 

PRACTICAL EXERCISE-No. XVIII. 

[Let the pupil name the adverbs in these sentences, and compare them 
where they admit of comparison] 

11 We are fearfully and wonderfully made." 

" Virtue is bold, and goodness never fearful." 

" Listen attentively to advice, but be not too confident." 

"The heavenly bodies are perpetually in motion." 

11 We should always prefer our duty to our pleasure." 

11 Man is more easily inclined to do evil than good." 

" The garment was decently formed and sewed very neatly." 

11 We ought to live soberly, righteously and piously in this 

world." 

" Hitherto I have been thoughtless: I will henceforth be more 

considerate." 

OF OTHER ADVERBS. 

§51. Besides the adverbs already mentioned, there are many which are 
formed by a combination of several of the prepositions with the adverbs of 
place, here, there, and where : as, "Hereof, thereof, whereof; hereto, thereto, 
whereto ; hereby, thereby, whereby; herewith, therewith, wherewith ; here- 
in, therein, wherein ; therefore, (i. e. there for,) wherefore, (i. e where for,) 
hereupon or hereon, thereupon or thereon, whereupon or whereon, &c. Ex- 
cept therefore, these are seldom used. 

In some instances the preposition suffers no change, but becomes an ad- 
verb merely by its application : as when we say, " he rides about ;' ; u he was 
near falling;" " but do not after lay the blame on me." 

There are also some adverbs, which are composed of nouns, and the let- 
ter a used instead of at, on, &c. : as, " Aside, athirst, afoot, ahead, asleep, 
aboard, ashore, abed, aground, afloat," &.c. 

The words when and where, and all others of the same nature, such as, 
vihence, whither, whenever, wherever, &c* may be properly called adverbial . 
conjunctions, because they participate the nature both of adverbs and con- 
junctions : of conjunctions, as they conjoin sentences ; of adverbs, as they de- 
note the attributes either of time or place. 

Il may be particularly observed with respect to the word therefore, that it 
is an adverb, when, without joining sentences, it only gives the sense of, for 
that reason. When it gives that sense, and also connects, it is a conjunction ; 



76 ETYMOLOGY. 

as, " He is good, therefore he is happy." The same observation may be ex- 
tended to the A^ords consequently, accordingly, and the like. When these 
are subjoined to and, or joined to if, since, fyc. they are adverbs, the con- 
nexion being made without their help : when they appear single, and unsup- 
ported by any other connective, they may be called conjunctions. 

The inquisitive scholar may naturally ask what necessity there is for ad- 
verbs of time, when verbs are provided with tenses, to show that circumstance. 
The answer is, though tenses may be sufficient to denote the greater distinc- 
tions of time, yet, to denote them at all by the tenses would be a perplexity 
without end. What a variety of forms must be given to the verb, to denote 
yesterday, to-day, to-morrow, formerly, lately, just now, now, immediately, 
presently , soon, hereafter, &c. It was this consideration that made the adverbs 
of time necessary, over and above the tenses. 

The definitive the is often prefixed to an adverb, by way of emphasis, and 
in such instances may be considered as a part of the adverb, or on the whole 
regarded as an adverbial phrase: 



CHAPTER VII 



OF PREPOSITIONS. 



§5£. Prepositions serve to connect words with one 
another, and to show the relation between them. They are, 
for the most part, put before nouns and pronouns : as, " He 
went from London to New York ;" " She is above disguise ;" 
" They are instructed by him." 

Another very frequent use of Prepositions, is to show the condition of 
things : as 3 " Christ was crucified between two thieves," " Babylon stood on 
the Euphrates. 77 

The following is a list of the principal prepositions : 



Of 


without 


from 


athwart 


to 


over 


beyond 


off 


for 


under 


toward 


on or upon 


by 


through 


at 


among 


with 


out 


near 


after 


in 


above 


up 


about 


betwixt 


below 


down 


against 


into 


between 


before 


across* 


within 


beneath 


behind 





*Some grammarians have very much enlarged this list of prepositions by 
introducing into it the words, concerning, except, excepting, notwithstanding, 
but, touching, and others of a similar character. This is a liberty not 
warranted in the structure of our language. The words just named are ei- 
ther participles or verbs, taking after them the objective case, and should 
so be construed in parsing. 



PREPOSITIONS. 77 

Sometimes ; for the expression of particular relations or conditions, two 
prepositions are used : as " He was soon seen issuing from beneath the roof 
of a lowly cottage," " The criminal has escaped out 0/jail." In such instan- 
ces the two prepositions are to be parsed as one. 

The necessity and use of prepositions will appear from the following ex- 
amples. If we say, " he writes a pen/' " they ran the river, 7 ' " the tow- 
er fell the Greeks," c< Lambeth is Westminster-abbey," there is observable, 
in each of ihese expressions, either a total want of connexion, or such a con- 
nexion as produces falsehood or nonsense : and it is evident, that, before they 
can be turned into sense, the vacancy must be filled up by some connecting 
word : as thus, " He writes with a pen ,'" " they ran towards the river 5" '• the 
tower fell uponXhe Greeks 5" " Lambeth is over against Westminster-abbey." 
We see by these instances, how prepositions may be necessary to connect 
those words, which in their signification are not naturally connected. 

Prepositions, in their original and literal acceptation, seem to have denoted 
relations of place 5 but they are now used figuratively to express other rela- 
tions. For example, as they who are above have in several respects the ad- 
vantage of such as are below, prepositions expressing high and low places are 
used for superiority and inferiority in general ; as, " He is above disguise 5" 
"we serve under a good master:" " he rules over a willing people;" " we 
should do nothing beneath our character." 

Verbs are often compounded of a verb and a preposition, as, to uphold, to 
invest, to overlook : and this composition sometimes gives a new sense to the 
verb ; as, to understand, to withdraw, to forgive. But in English, the prepo- 
sition is more frequently placed after the verb, and separately from it, like an 
adverb, in which situation it is not less apt to affect the sense of it, and to 
give it a new meaning ; and may still be considered as belonging to the verb, 
and as a part of it, As, to cast, is to throw : but to cast up, or to compute, an 
account, is quite a different thing : thus, to fall on, to bear off, to give over. 
&c. So that the meaning of the verb/ and the propriety of the phrase, de- 
pend on the preposition subjoined. 

In the composition of many words, there are certain syllables employed, 
which Grammarians have called inseparable prepositions : as, be, con, mis, 
&c in bedeck, conjoin, mistake : but as they are not words of any kind, they 
cannot properly be called a species of preposition. 

The importance of the prepositions will be further perceived by the explan- 
ation of a few of them. 

Of denotes possession or belonging, an effect or consequence, and other 
relations connected with these : as, '* The house of my friend 3" that is, " the 
house belonging to my friend 3" ** He died of a fever 5" that is, " in conse- 
quence of a fever." 

To, or unto, is opposed to from ; as, " He rode from Salisbury to Win- 
chester." 

For indicates the cause of any action or circumstance, &c, as, i* He loves 
her /or (that is, on account of) her amiable qualities." 

By is generally used with reference to the cause, agent, means, &c. ; as, 
" He was killed by. a fall : that is, " a fall was the cause of his being killed 5" 
41 This house was built by him 3" thnt is, " he was the builder of it." 

With denotes the act of accompanying, uniting: &c. as, we will go with 

you 5" " They are on good terms with each other." With also alludes to 

the instrument or means : as, " He was cut with a knife." 

In relates to time, place, the state or manner of being or acting, &c : as, 
14 He was born in (that is, during) the year 1720 3" " He dwells in the city 3" 
11 She lives in affluence." 

Into is used after verbs that imply motion of any kind : as, " He retired in- 
to the country 5 " Copper is converted into brass." 

Within, relates to something comprehended in any place or time : as, 

D4 



78 ETYMOLOGY. 

" They are within the house -," u He began and finished his work within the 
limited time. ;; 

The signification of without is opposite to that of within : as, " She stands 
without the gate : ,; But it is more frequently opposed to with; as, " You may 
go without me." 

The import and force of the remaining prepositions will be readily under- 
stood, without a particular detail of them. 

The prepositions after, before, above, beneath, and several others, some- 
times appear to be adverbs, and may be so considered : as, " They had 
their reward soon after ;" " He died not long before ;" " He dwells above ; 7; 
but if the nouns time and place be added, they will lose their adverbial form : 
as, a He died long before that time,' } &e, 



CHAPTER VIII. 

OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

§53. A Conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly 
used to connect sentences ; so as, out of two or more 
sentences, to make but one. It sometimes connects only 
words. 

Conjunctions are principally divided into two classes, the 
copulative and the disjunctive. 

The Conjunction Copulative serves to connect or to con- 
tinue a sentence, by expressing an addition, a supposition, 
a cause, &>c. : as, " He and his brother reside in London ;" 
" I will go if he will accompany me ;" " You are happy, 
because you are good." 

The Conjunction Disjunctive serves, not only to connect 
and continue the sentence, but also frequently, to express 
opposition of meaning in different degrees : as, " Though 
he was frequently reproved, yet he did not reform ;" " They 
came with her, but they went away without her." 

The following is a list of the principal Conjunctions : 
The Copulative. And, if, that, both, then, since, for, 

because, therefore, wherefore. 

The Disjunctive. But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, 

unless, either, neither, yet. 

The same word is occasionally used both as a conjunction and as an ad- 
verb 5 and sometimes as a preposition. "I rest then upon this argument:" 
then is here a conjunction : in the following phrase, it is an adverb : " He 
arrived then, and not before.' 7 "I submitted ; for it was vain to resist j" 



CONJUNCTIONS. 79 

m this sentence, for h a conjunction ; in the next, it is a preposition : " He 
con tended for victory only/ 7 In the first of the following sentences, since is 
a conjunction 5 in the second, it is a preposition 5 and in the third, an ad- 
verb : "Since we must part, let us do it peaceably j" ( ' I have not seen him 
since that time ;" " Our friendship Commenced long since, 77 

Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to con- 
nect sentences : as, ■• Blessed is the man who feareth the 
Lord, and keepeth his commandments." 

A relative pronoun possesses the force both of a pronoun and a connec- 
tive. Nay, the union by relatives is rather closer than that by mere con- 
junctions. The latter may form two or more sentences into one 5 but, by the 
former, several sentences may be incorporated into one and the same clause 
of a sentence. Thus, " Thou seest a man, and he is called Peter," is a sen- 
tence consisting- of two distinct clauses, united by the conjunction and; but, 
" The man whom thou seest is called Peter/' is a sentence of one clause, 
and not less comprehensive than the other. 

Conjunctions very often unite sentences, when they appear to unite only 
words ; as in the following instances : " Duty and interest forbid vicious in- 
dulgences '," u Wisdom or folly governs us." Each of these forms of ex- 
pression contains two sentences ; viz. " Duty forbids vicious indulgences 5 
interest forbids vicious indulgences 5" u Wisdom governs us, or folly gov- 
erns us." 

Though the conjunction is commonly used to connect sentences together, 
yet, on some occasions, it merely connects words, not sentences : as, " The 
king and queen are an amiable pair 5" where the affirmation cannot refer to 
each 5 it being absurd to say that the king or the queen only is an amiable 
pair. So in the instances, "Two and two are four 5" " The fifth and sixth 
volumes will complete the set of books.' 7 Prepositions also, as before ob- 
served, connect words ; but they do it to show the relation which the con- 
nected words have to each other : conjunctions, when they unite words only, 
are designed to show the relations which those words, so united, have to 
other parts of the sentence. 

As there are man}' conjunctions and connective phrases appropriated to 
the coupling of sentences, that are never employed in joining the members 
of a sentence ; so there are several conjunctions appropriated to the latter 
use, which are never employed m the former ; and some that are equally 
adapted to both those purposes : as, again, further, besides, &c. of the sec- 
ond 5 and but, arid, for, therefore, &c. of the last. 

A few remarks on the conjunction, but, will close this chapter. 

But is used for two Saxon words, originally by mistake, but now by es- 
tablished custom 5 bet or bote, the radical of our modern words better, boot, 
and denoting sufficiency, compensation, more, further, or something additional, 
by way of amendment 5 and beutan or butan, equivalent to without or except. 

In the former sense, we have the word in this sentence 3 " John resides at 
York, but Thomas resides at Bristol." The primitive sense here is, John 
resides at York 5 more, add, or sup-ply, Thomas resides at Bristol. It does not 
always signify opposition, as is usually supposed, but some addition to the 
sense of what goes before. 

In the latter sense, or that of butan, it is used in this passage, " He hath 
not grieved me, but in part." That is, " He hath not grieved me except in 
part." The first assertion is a complete negation ; the word but (beutan) in- 
troduces an exception. " Nothing but true religion can give us peace in 
death." Here also is a complete negation ', with a saving introduced by but, 
Nothing except true religion. 



80 ETYMOLOGY. 

These were the only primitive uses of but, until, by means of a mistake, a 
third sense was added, which is that of only. Not knowing the origin and 
true meaning of but, authors omitted the negation in certain phrases where it 
was essential to a true construction 5 as in the following passages : "Our light 
affliction, which is but for a moment.' 7 " Jf they kill us, we shall but die." 

The but, in these passages, is butan, to be out, except 5 and according to the 
true original sense, not should precede, to give the sentence a negative turn : 
" Our light affliction is not, but (except) for a moment. " " We shall not, but 
die." As they now stand, they would in strictness signify — Our light afflic- 
tion is except for a moment— We can except die — which would not be sense. 
To correct the sense, and repair the breach made in the true English idiom, 
by this mistake, we must give but a new sense, equivalent to only. Thus we 
are obliged to patch and mend, to prevent the mischiefs of innovation. 

The history of this word but should be, as Johnson expresses the idea, c< a 
guide to reformers, and a terror to innovators." The first blunder or inno- 
vation blended two words of distinct meanings into one, in orthography and 
pronunciation, Then the sense and etymology being obscured, authors pro- 
ceeded to a further change, and suppressed the negation, which was essential 
to the butan. We have now therefore one word with three different and un- 
allied meanings ; and to these may be reduced the whole of Johnson's eigh- 
teen definitions of buL— Webster's Grammar, 



CHAPTER IX. 

OF INTERJECTIONS. 

§54. Interjections are words thrown in between the 
parts of a sentence, to express the passions or emotions of 
the speaker : as, "Oh? I have alienated my friend; alas! 
I fear for life :" " O virtue ! how amiable thou art I" 

The term Exclamations, would express more appropriately this class of 
words — certainly would be more significant — than that of Interjections ; for 
they are mere irregular sounds, the result of passionate emotions, and are 
guided by no rules. 

The English Interjections, as well as those of other languages, are compri- 
sed within a small compass. They are of different kinds, according to the 
different passions which they serve to express. Those which intimate ear- 
nestness or grief, are, O ! oh ! ah ! alas ! Such as are expressive of contempt, 
are pish! tush! of wonder, heigh ! really! strange! of calling, hem! ho ? so- 
ho! of aversion, or disgust, foh! fie ! away! of a call of the attention, lo ! 
behold! hark! of requesting silence, hush! hist! of salutation, welcome! 
hail! all hail! Besides these, several others, frequent in the mouths of the 
multitude, might be enumerated ; but in a grammar of a cultivated tongue, it 
is unnecessary to expatiate on such expressions of passion, as are scarcely 
worthy of being ranked among the branches of artificial language. 

In two or three instances, exclamations are followed by names and substi- 
tutes in the nominative and objective — as, O thou in the nominative — ah me 
in the objective. Sometimes that follows O, expressing a wish — "O that the 
Lord would guide my ways." But in such cases, we may consider wish or 
some other verb to be understood. 



INTERJECTIONS. 81 

Interjections, though frequent in discourse, do not often occur in elegant 
composition. Unpracticed writers, however, are apt to abound in the use of 
them, in order, as they imagine, to give pathos to their style ; which is nearly 
the same, as if with the view of rendering conversation wiity or humorous, 
one were to interrupt it with frequent peals of laughter. They who wish to 
speak often, and have little to say, are apt to abound in the exclamations,wo7*- 
■derful, amazing, prodigious, O dear me, surprising, and the like : and hence 
the too frequent use of such words tends to breed a suspicion, that one la- 
bors under a scantiness of ideas. 

Interjections denoting imprecation, and those in which the Divine Name 
is irreverently mentioned, are always offensive to a pious mind 5 and the wri- 
ter or speaker, who contracts a habit of introducing them, may without 
breach of charity, be suspected of profaneness. 

A brief sketch of the origin and progress of the English 
Language. 

§55. When the ancient Britons were so harrass^d and oppressed by 
the invasions of their northern neighbors, the Scots and Picts, that their situa- 
tion was truly miserable, they sent an embassy (about the middle of the fifth 
century) to the Saxons, a warlike people inhabiting the north of Germany, 
with solicitations for speedy relief. The Saxons accordingly came over to 
Britain, and were successful in repelling the incursions of the Scots and Picts 5 
but seeing the weak and defenceless state of the Britons, they resolved to 
take advantage of it 5 and at length established themselves in the greater 
part of South-Britain, after having- dispossessed the original inhabitants* 
From these barbarians, who founded several petty kingdoms in this island, 
and introduced their own laws, language, and manners, is derived the ground- 
work of the English language. 

The Saxons did not long remain in quiet possession of the kingdom : for 
before the middle of the ninth century, the Danes, a hardy and adventurous 
nation, who had long infested the northern seas with their piracies, began to 
ravage the English coast. In the beginning of the eleventh century, they 
made themselves masters of the greater part of England. Though the period, 
during which these invaders occupied the English throne, was very short, not 
greatly exceeding half a century, it is highly probable that some change was 
introduced by them into the language spoken by those, whom they had sub- 
dued. 

. The next conquerors of this kingdom, after the Danes, were the Normans, 
who, in the year 1066, introduced their leader William to the possession of 
the English throne. This prince, soon after his accession, endeavored to 
bring his own language (the Norman French) into use among his new sub- 
jects 5 but his efforts were not very successful, though many Norman words 
and phrases were introduced into the Saxon language. 

From the Conquest to the Reformation, the language continued to receive 
occasional accessions of foreign words, till it acquired such a degree of co- 
piousness and strength, as to render it succeptible of that polish, which it has 
received from writers of taste and genius, in the last and present centuries. 
During this period, the learned have enriched it with many significant ex- 
pressions, drawn from the treasures of Greek and Roman literature; the 
ingenious and the fashionable have imported occasional supplies of French, 
Spanish, Italian, and German words, gleaned during their foreign excursions ; 
and the connexions which we maintain, through the medium of government 
and commerce, with many remote nations, have made some additions to our 
uative vocabulary. 



PART III. 



SYNTAX. 



CHAPTER I 



OF SYNTAX IN GENERAL. 



<§>56. The third part of Grammar is Syntax, which 
treats of the government, agreement, relation and right 
construction of words in sentences. 

The government of words, is that power which one part 
of speeeh has over another, in directing its mood, tense, 
number, person, or case. 

The agreement of words, is the conformity or correspond- 
ence, which one word has to another, in gender, number, 
person, case, mood, or tense. 

The relation of words, is their dependence or connection, 
according to the sense, or construction of the sentence. 

The right construction of words, is the arrangement or 
relative position of them in sentences, according to gram- 
matical rules, founded on the nature and established usages 
of language. 

SENTENCES. 

§5*7. A sentence is an assemblage of words, making 
complete sense, and containing one or more propositions. 
A preposition consists of a subject and predicate. 



SYNTAX IN GENERAL. 83 

The subject of a proposition, is that of which something 
is affirmed, or spoken: as, "Man dies;" M Truth will 
prevail." 

The predicate expresses that which is affirmed or spoken 
of the subject; as, " Virtue will be rewarded" Here, will 
be rewarded, is the predicate ; Virtue is the subject. 

Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound. 

A simple sentence is a single proposition : as, u Life is 
short." 

A compound sentence consists of two or more simple 
sentences, or propositions, connected together : as, " Life 
is short, and art is long." 

Sentences are declaratory : as, " I am ; Charles is loved," 
— interrogative: as, " Did Alexander conquer Persia?" 
'* Where am I?" — imperative: as, "Go, thou traitor," 
" Haste you away," — or conditional : as, " If you would be 
healthy, live temperately." 

A clause, or member, is a proposition of a compound 
sentence. 

Members, or propositions of compound sentences; are connected together 
by conjunctions, relative pronouns, or adverbs. 

A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, mak- 
ing a part of a sentence, or proposition : as, " Entertaining 
for you the highest respect." " Loving to do well." 

An Adjunct is a word, or several words added to illustrate 
or exemplify the force of other words : as, M Vices, like 
shadoivs, towards the evening of life grow great and mon- 
strous." 

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

§58. 1. The subject is either grammatical ox logical. 

The grammatical subject is a noun, or some word stand- 
ing for a noun, in the nominative case. The logical subject 
consists of the grammatical subject, with the various words 
which modify or qualify it : thus, in the sentence, " The 
consciousness of a life well spent is very pleasant," — con- 
sciousness is the grammatical subject, and the consciousness 
of a life well spent, is the logical subject. 

Remark. — Words are said to modify or qualify others, when they serve 
to explain, describe, enlarge, restrict, or otherwise affect their meaning. 

A subject is either simple or compound. 
A simple subject is a single noun, or pronoun, alone, or 
E2 



84 SYNTAX. 

variously modified : as, " Time flies swiftly/' " The hours 
of this day are rapidly passing." 

A compound subject consists of two or more simple sub- 
jects having but one predicate : as, " Patience and diligence 
will remove mountains.'' 

2. The predicate, like the subject, is either grammatical 
or logical. 

The grammatical predicate is a finite* verb alone. The 
logical predicate consists of the grammatical predicate with 
its various modifying words : thus, in the sentence, M Virtue 
embalms the memory of the good," embalms is the gram- 
matical, and embalms the memory of the good, is the logical 
subject. 

If the grammatical predicate is not modified, it is the same as the logical 
predicate. The same is true of the subject. 

The predicate also, like the subject, is either simple or 
compound. 

A simple predicate is one that contains a single finite 
verb : as, (i All enjoy many blessings. 37 

A compound predicate consists of two or more simple 
predicates belonging to one subject : as, " The virtuous 
man admires, loves and practices virtue. 

When the verb is transitive, the logical subject always 
contains an object. The object is the thing affected by the 
action of the verb, and is grammatical or logical. The 
grammatical object is the objective case alone. The logical 
object is the objective case with its modifying words : thus, 
in the sentence, " We should fear the Author of our being," 
Author is the grammatical, and Author of our being, the 
logical object. 

HULES OF SYNTAX. 

§59. The rules of Syntax are, those laws, founded on 
the genius of any particular language, or the established 
practice of its best writers and speakers, which determine 
the government, agreement, relation and arrangement of 
words in sentences. 

In the arrangement of the following rules, the order of the parts of speech 
in Etymology,has been observed as nearly as the subject would] admit. As 

* A verb hi any mood except the infinitive, is called a. finite verb. 



RULES. 85 

the student will be able easily to distinguish the rules relating to agree- 
ment, government, or relation, from others, an arrangement founded on this 
mode of classification, was deemed unnecessary. 

For a clear apprehension of the rules of Syntax, the following definitions 
may be of service : 

1. A noun is said to be the case independent or absolute, when it has no 
relative connection with, or dependence on, other parts of the sentence. 

2. One word is said to follow another, when it depends upon it in con- 
struction, and is in some way influenced or modified by it. 

8. Words are said to be in ay-position, when they mean the same thing 
and agree in case. 

4. One word is said to belong to another, when it qualifies it, or describes 
its character. 

Rule I. — Nouns and Pronouns. 

A noun or pronoun, when it is the subject of a verb, is 

in the nominative case. 

Illustration. — " A good man's words inflict no injury." Here, loords being 
the subject, is in the nominative case. We say in parsing, it is in the nom- 
inative case and the subject of the verb inflict, or nominative case to the 
verb inflict, which must agree with it in number and person. 

Rule II. — Nouns and Pronouns. 

A noun or pronoun, when it is the name of a person or 

thing addressed, is in the nominative case independent. 

lllue. — M Fathers! Senators of Rome ! to you I fly for justice." Fathers 
and Senators are here the names of persons addressed, and are in the nom- 
inative independent. 

Rule III. — Nouns and Pronouns. 
A noun or pronoun, when joined with a participle, 
and independent of the rest of the sentence, is in the nom- 
inative case absolute. 

lllus. — il Our candles being lighted, the whole place was illuminated." 
Here, candles joined with the participle being lighted, stands without a verb, 
and is in the case absolute. So in the following sentence ; lt Washington, 
notwithstanding all his discouragements , achieved our Independence." Dis- 
couragements is here in the case absolute, joined with notwithstanding. 

Note. Sometimes, the noun is independent both of a verb or participle, 
and wheu so is in the nominative case absolute : as, 

" Lo, the poor Indian! whose untutored mind 
Sees God in clouds, and hears him in the wind." 

Rule IV. — Nouns and Pronouns. 
A noun or pronoun, denoting possession, and placed be- 
fore a noun limiting its meaning, is in the possessive case. 

lllus — " His brother's offence will not condemn him." Brother's denotes 
possession, and is in the possessive case before offence, which limits its 
meaning. The pronoun his, also, is in the possessive before brother's. 

E3 



86 SYNTAX. 

Rule V. — Nouns and Pronouns* 

The object of a transitive verb, or its participle, is in the 
objective case. 

^lllus. — "The Lord overthrew the Egyptians in the midst of the sea." 
Egyptians, in this sentence, is the object of overthrew, and therefore in the 
objective case. " The king, approving the plan, put it in execution." Here, 
plan, the object of the participle approving, is in the objective case. 

Rule VI. — Nouns and Pronouns. 
The object* of a preposition is in the objective case. 

Illus. — " Tn the death of a man there is no remedy." Here, death is the ob- 
ject of in, and man is the object of the preposition of; they are therefore in 
the objective case. 

Rule VII. — Nouns and Pronouns. 
Two objective cases may follow transitive verbs of nam- 
ing, giving , judging, and the like ; a preposition in gener- 
al being understood. 

Illus, — "They gave him vinegar to drink mingled with gall." In this 
sentence, him and vinegar are both in the objective case after gave; him, 
however, is not the object of gave, but of a preposition understood: thus, 
" They gave to him," &c. 

Note. When a verb in the active voice is followed by two objective cases, 
in the passive, it is followed by one : as, " He was given vinegar to drink 
mingled with gall " 

Rule VIII.— "Nouns and Pronouns. 

Two or more nouns or pronouns in the same sentence, 
signifying the same person or thing, are put, by apposition, 
in the same case. 

Illus. — " Demosthenes the Orator, flourished in the time of Philip, the 
Macedonian general." Here orator, meaning the same person as Demosthe- 
nes, is put in the nominative case with it. So also general, meaning the same 
as Philip, is in apposition with it, and both are in the objective case, the ob- 
ject of the preposition of. 

Rule IX. — Nouns. 

Nouns, signifying direction, distance, time how long, 
or when, are in the objective case; a preposition being in 
general understood. 

Illus. — " Charles approved his advice and returned the way he went." 
Here, ivazj is in the objective case, the object of in or over understood. 
So in the following sentences : " He walked twelve miles," that is, over 
twelve miles, or through the space of twelve miles. " Webster was in col- 
lege four years," that is, for four years, or through a period of four years. 
" I visit Boston every month" that is, on every month, or on the return of 
every month. 

* The object of a preposition is one of relation, not of action. 



RULES. 87 

Note. Nouns of measure, dimension, quantity or valuation, followed by 
an adjective, are in the objective case, without a governing word: as, 
" Europe \s three thousand miles long." " The largest Egyptian pyramid 
has a base six hundred and sixty feet square." 

Rule X. — Pronouns. 

Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand, 
in gender, number and person. 

Illus. — " Johnson has arrived ; he is the man of whom I spoke. " He and 
v)hom are each of the masculine gender, third person and singular number, 
to agree with Johnson or man. /is of the first person, singular number, and 
of the gender of the person speakiBg. 

Rule XI. — Adjectives. 

Adjectives and adjective pronouns belong to nouns or pro- 
nouns, which they qualify, describe, or point out. 

Illus. — " A wise man bridles his tongue." The adjective wise describes 
man, and therefore belongs to it. 

Note. An adjective may belong to a verb in the infinitive mood, to a 
part of a sentence, or whole sentence, used substantively ■ as, " To calumni- 
ate is dete stable. v Here ; detestable belongs to, to calumniate. u To be a cow- 
ard, is disgraceful." Disgraceful belongs to, to be a coward. 

Rule XII. — Adjectives. 

Adjectives are often used as adverbs, and as such qualify 
and belong to the same parts of speech that adverbs do. 

Illus. — "Clay burns white." Here the adjective white, qualifies burns. 
To say that white, in this instance, is an adverb, is to destroy the sense. The 
clay does not burn whitely, but white* u The tree grew straight and thick." 

Rule XIII. — Adjectives and Adjective Pronouns. 
Adjective pronouns and numerals must agree in number 
with the nouns to which they belong. 

Illus. — u Every man should take heed to his doings." Every being singu- 
lar, the noun man to which it belongs is singular. We cannot say, every men. 
11 1 am not one of that sort," — not those sort. " John has not visited Wind- 
sor these three years" — not, this three year. 

Rule XIV.— Verbs. 

A verb must agree with its nominative case in number 
and person. 

Illus. — " Man's chief good is an upright mind," Good, being of the third 
person singular, the verb is, must be also to agree with it. 

Rule XV. — Verbs and Pronouns. 

Two or more nouns or pronouns in the singular number, 

* See observations under this rule, in chap. II. §70. of Syntax. 



88 SYNTAX. 

connected together by the conjunction and, require verbs 
and pronouns to agree with them in the plural number. 

lllus. — u Day and night yield us contrary blessings ; yet, at the same time, 
they assist each other, by giving fresh lustre to the delights of both." Here, 
yield, they, and assist, are in the plural, to agree with day and night. 

Rule XVI. — Verbs and Pronouns. 

Two or more nouns or pronouns in the singular number, 
connected together by the conjunction or, or nor, require 
verbs and pronouns to agree with them in the singular num- 
ber. 

Illus. — " A lampoon or satire does not carry in it robbery or murder." Does, 
carry, and it, must be in the singular number, to agree with lampoon or satire 
separately. 

Rule XVII. — Verbs and Pronouns. 

A noun of multitude, when it conveys the idea of plurali- 
ty, requires verbs and pronouns to agree with it in the plu- 
ral number ; but when it conveys the idea of unity or whole- 
ness, in the singular number. 

lllus. — " The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure as their chief good." Here, 
multitude conveys the idea of plurality, or of individuals, and therefore, pur- 
sue and their are required to be in the plural number. " This people is be- 
come a great nation." People, here, not conveying the idea of plurality, but 
of unity, this and is become are in the singular number. 
. . . 

Rule XVIII. — Infinitives. 

The infinitive mood may follow a verb, participle, adjec- 
tive, noun, pronoun or adverb, on which it depends. 

lllus. — "A good man loves to cherish the social affections." Here, to 
cherish depends on the verb loves. '• We should have a desire to improve. " 
Here, to improve depends on the noun desire. " It is delightful to contem- 
plate the goodness of Providence." To contemplate, in this sentence, de- 
pends on the adjective delightful. 

Note. The infinitive mood sometimes depends on a clause or whole sen- 
tence: as, u Charles removed into the country, to improve his health." Here, 
to improve depends on the whole sentence which precedes. 

Rule XIX. — Infinitives. 

The infinitive mood, a part of a sentence, or whole sen- 
tence, may perform the office of the subject to the verb ; in 
which case the verbis always of the third person and sin- 
gular number. 

lllus.—' 1 To love and practice virtue, is a duty alike enjoined by reason 
and scripture." To love and practice virtue, is ifrre the subject of is. 



RULES. - 89 

Rule XX. — Infinitives. 

The transitive verbs bid, dare, let, feel, see, make, and a 

few others, are followed by the infinitive mood without the 

sign to. 

Illus,—" Let thy kingdom come ;" that is, to come. " I saw him do it ;" 
that is, to do it. 

Rule XXI. — Participles. 
Participles belong to nouns, or pronouns. 

illus.—" Time once past can never be recalled." '.' You will return, m$r- 
iijied at your loss." In these sentences, past belongs to time, and mortified 
to you. 

Rule XXII. — Adverbs. 

Adverbs belong to verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs, 
whose meaning they modify or affect. 

Illus. — "Man's earthly enjoyments soon pass away." Here ; soon and 
away qualify pass. "The bird flew very swiftly." In this sentence, very 
qualifies swiftly, and swiftly, the verb few. 

Rule XXIII. — Prepositions. 

Prepositions show the relation between words and the 
condition of things. 

Illus. — " We should learn by the faults of others to correct our own." 
" Friendship; among the vicious, is coeval only with mutual satisfaction." 

Rule XXIV. — Conjunctions. 

Conjunctions connect words and sentences, and some- 
times sections or chapters. 

Illus.—" Snow or ice, when it melts, absorbs heat and produces cold." 
Here, or connects ice and snow 5 and, produces and absorhs. *' Abstain from 
injuring others, if you wish to be in safety/ 7 If here connects the sentences 
of which abstain and wish are the principal verbs. 

Note 1. Conjunctions frequently connect verbs of the same mood and 
tense, and nouns and pronouns of the same case ■: as, " The President will 
leave to-day, but will return to-morrow." " Sincerity and generosity are 
commendable virtues/ 7 

Note 2. Relative pronouns and certain adverbs often connect sentences : 
as, lt There are millions of people in China, who derive their support entirely 
from rice/ 7 " The messenger had not arrived when I set out/ 7 

Rule XXV. — Interjections. 

Interjections have no dependent construction. 

Note. The interjections O, oh, and ah } require the objective case of pro- 
nouns of the first person, and the nominative case of pronouns of the second 
person, after them ; as, " Ah me! O thou! Oh you!" 



90 SYNTAX. 

PARSING. 

§60. Parsing is the resolving of a sentence into its dis- 
tinct elements, and showing the relation which these 
elements, or the parts of speech, have among themselves, 
and their agreement with, or government over, one another, 
according to the rules of Syntax. 

All syntactical parsing depends on the sense of the sen- 
tence, or the construction of the words in it. These partic- 
ulars, therefore, must ever be carefully noted. A word can 
only be rightly construed as it harmonizes with one or the 
other. 

In parsing, it is required of the student to name the parts 
of speech, and their classes — to mention their modifications 
in order, to tell their relation, agreement, or government — 
and to apply the appropriate Rules of Syntax. 

Syntactical parsing, therefore, includes Etymological. 

It is further required, of beginners especially, to tell why a word has 
such or such an agreement, relation, or government, and also, why it is of 
any given number ; person ; gender, case, mood, lense ; comparison, or voice. 

Example Parsed. 

" The power of speech is a faculty peculiar to man; and ivas bestowed on 
him. by his beneficent Creator, for the greatest and most excellent uses ; but, 
alas! how often do we pervert it to the worst purposes which can be con- 
ceived." 

The — is an adjective (or definitive,*) and belongs to the noun power ; ac- 
cording to Rule XI. which says, " Adjectives and adjective pronouns belong 
to nouns or pronouns, which they qualify or describe." 

Power — is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, nomina- 
tive case {decline it), and the subject of the verb is ; according to Rule I. 
which says, &c. [Repeat the Rule in every instance] 

Of— is a preposition, and shows the relation between power and speech; 
according to Rule XXIII. which says, &c. 

Speech — is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, objective 
case {decline it), and the object of the preposition of, which it follows ; ac- 
cording to Rule VI. which says, &c. 

Is — is an irregular inactive verb, {name its principal parts), of the indic- 
ative mood, present tense, third person, singular number, and agrees with 
its subject, power ; according to Rule XIV. which says, &c. 

A — is an adjective, (or definitive), used only before nouns in the singular 
number, and belongs to the noun faculty ; according to Rule XI. which 
says,&c, and Rule XIII. which says, &c. 

•See §17. and §>27. 



PARSING. 91 

Faculty — is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, and put 
by apposition with power in the nominative case $ according to Rule VIII. 
which says, &e. 

Peculiar — is an adjective (compare it), and belongs to the noun faculty /ac- 
cording to Rule XI. which says, &c. 

To — is a preposition, and shows the relation between the adjective pe~ 
culiar and the noun man; according to Rule XXIII. which says, &c, 

Man — is a common noun, of the masculine gender, third person, singular 
number, objective case (decline it), and the object of the preposition to, 
which it follows ; according to Rule VI. which says, &c. 

And — is a copulative conjunction, and connects the sentences of which is 
and was bestowed are the principal verbs ', according to Rule XXIV. which 
says, &c. 

Was bestowed — is a regular passive verb, of the indicative mood, past 
tense, third person, singular number, and connected by the conjunction and 
to the verb is, and agrees with its subject nominative, power ; according to 
Rule XIV. which says, &c. 

On — is a preposition, and shows the relation between was bestowed and 
the pronoun him; according to Rule XXIII. which says. &c. 

Him — is a personal pronoun, of the masculine gender, third person, singu- 
lar number and objective case (decline it), the object of the preposition on ; 
according to Rule VI. which says, &c 

By — is a preposition, and shows the relation between was bestowed and 
Creator ; according to Rule XXIII. which says, &c. 

His — is a personal pronoun, having man for its antecedent, of the mascu- 
line gender, singular number, third person, and possessive case (decline it); 
according to Rule IV. which says, &c., and Rule X. which says, &c 

Beneficent — is an adjective (compare it), of the positive degree, and be- 
longs to the noun Creator ; according to Rule XI. which says, &c. 

Creator — is a proper noun, of the masculine gender, third person, singular 
number, objective case (decline it), the object of the preposition by ; accor- 
ding to Rule VI. which says, &c. 

For — is a preposition, and shows the relation between was bestowed and 
uses ; according to Rule XXIII- which says, &c\ 

The — is an adjective, and belongs to uses ; according to Rule XIj which 
says, &c. 

Greatest — is an adjective (compare it), of the superlative degree, and be- 
longs to uses ; according to Rule XI, which says, &c. 

And — is a copulative conjunction, and connects the adjectives greatest and 
excellent; according to Rule XXIV. which says, &c. 

Most — is an adjective, used as an adverb, and belongs to excellent; accor- 
ding to Rule XII, which says, &c. 

Excellent — is an adjective (compare it), of the superlative degree, and be- 
longs to uses; according to Rule XI. which says, &c. 

Uses — is a common noun, of the third person, plural number and objective 
case (decline it), the object of the preposition for ; according to Rule VI, 
which says, &c» 

But — is a disjunctive conjunction, and connects the sentences of which do 
pervert and was bestowed are the verbs 5 according to Rule XXIV. which 
says, &c. 

Alas — is an interjection, having an independent construction 5 according 
to Rule XXV. which says, &c. 



92 SYNTAX. 

How— -is an adverb and belongs to the adverb often ; according to Rule 
XXII. which says, &c. 

Often— is an adverb {compare it), of the positive degree, and belongs to the 
verb do pervert; according to Rule XXII. which says, &c. 

We — is a personal pronoun, of the first person, plural number, nomina- 
tive case, {decline it), and the subject of the verb, do pervert ; according to 
Rule I. which says, &c. 

Do pervert — is a regular active transitive verb, of the indicative mood, 
present tense, first person, plural number, and agrees with its subject, we; 
according to Rule XIV. which says, &c. 

It — is a personal pronoun of the third person, singular number, and objective 
case, {decline it,) the object of do pervert ; according to Rule V. which says 5 &c. 

To — is a preposition, and shows the relation between purposes and do per- 
vert ; according to Rule XXIII. which says, &c. 

The — is an adjective, and belongs to the noun, purposes; according to 
Rule XI.. which says, &c. 

Worst — is an adjective, — bad or ill, worse, worst — of the superlative de- 
gree, and belongs to purposes; according to Rule XI. which says, &c. 

Purposes — is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, and ob- 
jective case, {decline it,) the object of the preposition, to ; according to Rule 
V. which says, &c. 

Which — is a relative pronoun, having purposes for its antecedent, of the 
third person, plural number, nominative esse, and the subject of the verb, 
can be conceived ; according to Rule X. which says, &c. and Rule I. which 
says, &c, 

Can be conceived — is a regular passive verb, of the potential mood, present 
tense, plural number, third person, and agrees with its subject nominative, 
which; according to Rule XIV. which says, &c. 

Examples for Parsing. 

[The following examples are designed to illustrate and exemplify the Rules 
of Syntax. Words are to be parsed according to the preceding model. The 
words in italics are appropriate to the particular rules under which they oc- 
cur, and are to be construed by them ] 

Rule 1. Every man who puts on the appearance of goodness, is 
not good. 

It is proper to be slow in deliberating, but ice should be swift to 
execute. 

Sloth, ease, success, naturally tend to beget vices and follies. 

Perpetual light-inindedness will terminate in ignorance. 

Rule II. O death! where is thy sting? O grave! where is thy 
victory ? 

Continue, my dear children, to make virtue your chief study. 

Canst thou expect, thou betrayer of innocence, to escape ven- 
geance ? 

Bear me, Pomona, to thy citron groves. 

Rule III. The senate consented to the creation of tribunes of 
the people, Appius alone protesting against the measure. 

Life being uncertain, we should be prepared at all times to meet 
death . 

The mail having arrived, I immediately set out. 

Note. A simple scene f yet hence Britannia sees her solid grandeur rise. 



PARSING. 93 

Rule IV. A dutiful son will hear his father's instructions. 
Moses' rod was turned into a serpent. 

Nevertheless, for Herodias' sake, his brother Philip's wife, he 
commanded it to be given her. 

Rule V. Charity, like the sun, brightens all its objects. 

Conscious guilt renders us mean-spirited, timorous and base. 

One day is sufficient to scatter our prosperity, and bring it to 
nought. 

Poverty induces dependence, and dependence increases corruption. 

Galileo invented the telescope; Hervey discovered the circula- 
tion of the blood. 

Rule VI. The indulgence of harsh dispositions, is the intro- 
duction to future misery. 

For the kingdom of God is not in xoord, but in power. 
Ah ! who can tell the triumphs of the mind, 
By truth illumined, and by taste refined ? 

Rule VII. And they called his name John. 
1 also will ask you one question. 
Peter saw the culprit, and judged him a villain. 
Note. He was called victor, and was offered a crown. 

Rule VLU. Hope, the halm of life, soothes us under every mis- 
fortune. 

Confucius, the great Chinese philosopher, was eminently good 
as well as wise. 

The patriarch Joseph is an illustrious example of resignation and 
filial affection. 

Claudius Nero, Caligula's uncle, a senseless fellow, obtained the 
kingdom. 

Who do men say that / am ? — Webster is a statesman. 

Rule IX. He traveled east three days and two nights. 
A rail-road car will run thirty miles an hour. 
It rained all day, Wensday of last week. 

Note. The Atlantic ocean is three thousand miles wide. 
The sea is supposed to be five miles deep. 

[The adjective worth precedes the pronoun.] 
The book is worth a dollar. To reign is worth ambition, though in hell. 

Rule X. Every society has a right to prescribe for itself the 
terms on which its members shall be admitted. 

I am happy in the friend whom I have long proved. 

The Egyptian crown I to your hands remit ; 

And with it take his heart who offers it. 

Rule XI. True friendship will, at all times, avoid a careless or 
rough behavior. 

Time brings a gentle and powerful opiate to all misfortunes. 

The vicious man is often looking round him with anxious and 
fearful circumspection. 

Note. To practice generosity will be productive of happiness. -- 

To see the sun setting in calmness and beauty, is pleasant. 



94 SYNTAX. 

Rule XII. The clouds look watery. Soft sighed the flute. 

The mighty Orellana, impetuous hurled from all the waving 
Andes, huge descends. 

The cakes eat short and crisp. 

Heaven opened wide her ever during gates. 

Rule XI11. Every man has some influence. 

Some persons cannot acquire wealth or honor. 
This man neglects his affairs. 

Those vicious persons, will one day reap the reward of all their 
doings. 

Rule XIV. The man of virtue and honor will be trusted, relied 
on and esteemed. 

The man of order catches and arrests the hours as they fly. 

Thou art innocent, / alone am in fault. 

Benefits should be long and gratefully remembered. 

Rule XV. Self-conceit, presumption and obstinacy, blast the 
prospect of many a youth. 

Socrates and Plato were celebrated for their wisdom. 

Sincerity and truth form the basis of every virtue. 

Honor thy father and thy mother, that a blessing may come on 
you and them. 

Rule XVI. Has not sloth, or pride, or ill temper, misled you 
from the path of duty ? 

Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which moves 
merely as it is moved. 

Despise no infirmity of mind or body, or condition in life, for it 
may be your own lot. 

Rule XVII. The American people show that they are not in- 
sensible to praise or censure. 

The public are often deceived by false appearances and great pre- 
tensions. 

In the days of youth, the multitude eagerly pursue pleasure as 
their chief good. 

The Church has no power to inflict coporeal punishment. 

Rule XVIII. We should seek to obtain knowledge. 
It is pleasant to view the twinkling stars. 

A knowledge of the rules of Grammar teaches how to speak and 
write correctly. 

Note. I rode out daily for six months, to improve my health. 

Rule XIX. To excel, requires much exertion. 

To be able to write a fair hand, needs much practice. 

The doing of good to our enemies, is a law of the Christian re- 
ligion. 

Rule XX. None but the virtuous dare hope in adversity. 

Let us make haste to do good. 

1 saw Mary enter the garden and soon after return with a bunch 
of flowers. 

Bid me come unto thee on the water. 



PARSING. 95 

Rule XXI. True gentleness is a native feeling, heightened and 
improved by principle. 

The path of piety, pursued with a firm spirit, will lead to happi- 
ness. 

Having sold my patrimony, 1 engaged in merchandise. 

We ought to be generous, loving to give more than to receive. 

Rule XXII. When a friend is calumniated, openly and boldly 
espouse his cause. 

The disciples were affectionately attached to their Lord and 
Master. 

A truly good man has no fear of death. 

Charles very wisely determined to leave off his bad habits. 

Rule XXIII. The government of this world is not left to chance. 
Many are weighed in the balance and found wanting. 
Labor and expense are lost upon a dronish spirit. 
The fin of a fish is the limb by which he balances his body and 
moves through the water. 

Rule XXIV*. Patience and diligence will overcome the great- 
est obstacles. 

I shall be happy to accompany you, if I can find the means of 
conveyance. 

The ancient Russians believed that their northern mountains 
encompassed the globe. 

Note 2. There are many faults in spelling, which neither analogy nor 
pronunciation justifies. 

Rule XXV. Mas! alas! I have destroyed my friend, and fear 
for life. 

ho ! what a glorious prospect charms the eye ! 

Note. Ah me! strange events have come upon me. 
O thou traitor to thy country ! escape for thy life, lest sudden vengeance 
overtake thee, 

Note. The Rules of Syntax embraced in the foregoing Chapter, will be 
found adequate for the resolution of all ordinary sentences j and in connec- 
tion with the illustrations, examples, praxis, and the parsing exercises, will 
give the student much general and practical knowledge of the Syntax of 
Grammar. But something more is necessarj*. All general rules admit of 
exceptions, and most of them of various and extensive application. They 
need to be illustrated, likewise, by examples of false Syntax, that the student 
may be able more fully to understand and appreciate them. Besides, there 
are many remarks to be made on the construction of particular sentences 
and the arrangement of words in them, as well as in sentences in general, 
which cannot well be embraced in rules. These things make another chap- 
ter necessary, and the following (Chapter II.), it is hoped, will be found to 
contain all that is desirable or needed in respect to these particulars. To 
answer fully the purposes we have in view, some rules not stated in this 
chapter have been introduced. The order of arrangement, furthermore, as 
it could not be well preserved in all cases, has been in some respects chang- 
ed. In conclusion — no student, who desires a thorough and accurate ac- 
quaintance with Syntax, should omit a close examination and careful study 
of the following chapter. 

E4 



96 SYNTAX. 

CHAPTER II. 

RULES OF SYNTAX, 

With Illustrations, Exceptions, False Syntax, Notes, and 
Critical Re?narJcs. 

§61. A verb must agree with its nominative case in 
number and person. 

The following are a few instances of the violation of this rule : " What sig- 
nifies good opinions, when our practice is bad 1 " what signify." " There's 
two or three of us, who have seen the work ;" " there are." " We may sup- 
pose there was more impostors than one 5" {e there viere more." " I have 
considered what have been said on both sides in this controversy ;" " what 
has been said." "If thou would be healthy, live temperately 3" "if thou 
wouldst." " Thou sees how little has been done 5 " thou seest." " Though 
thou cannot do much for the cause, thou may and should do something ;" 
" canst not, mayst, and shvuldst" " Full many a flower are born to blush 
unseen ;" " is born." " A conformity of inclinations and qualities prepare 
us for friendship ;" "prepares us." u A variety of blessings have been con- 
ferred upon us y 9 " has been." u In piety and virtue consist the happiness 
of man 5" " consists." " To these precepts are subjoined a copious selection 
of maxims 5" "is subjoined." 

Explanatory Note. The [Brackets] which appear below, and which will 
be found throughout this chapter, contain examples of False Syntax. These 
examples are to be corrected in accordance with the general rule, or remark 
under which they occur. It may not be improper to observe in this place, 
for the benefit of inexperienced teachers, that the pupil is first to make him- 
self acquainted, so far as he is able, with the text, and afterwards to be 
questioned thereon by the teacher, who will likewise read to him the exam- 
ples of false syntax for his verbal correction. 

[Disappointments sinks the heart of man ; but the renewal of hope 
give consolation. — The smiles that encourage severity of judgment 
hides malice and insincerity. — He dare not act contrary to his in- 
structions. — Fifty pounds of wheat contains forty pounds of flour. 
— The mechanism of clocks and watches were totally unknown a 
few centuries ago. — The number of inhabitants in Great Britain 
and Ireland do not exceed sixteen millions. — A variety of pleasing 
objects charm the eye. — So much both of ability and merit are sel- 
dom found. — In the conduct of Parmenio a mixture of wisdom and 
folly were very conspicuous. — He is an author of more credit than 
Plutarch, or any other that write lives too hastily. — The inquisi- 
tive and curious is generally talkative. — The sincere is always 
esteemed. — Has the goods been sold to advantage ? and did thou 
embrace the proper season ? — There is many occasions in life, in 
which silence and simplicity is true wisdom. — In him were happi- 
ly blended true dignity with softness of manners. — The support of 



ituLEs. 97 

so many of his relations were a heavy tax upon his industry ; but 
thou knows he paid it cheerfully. — What avails the best sentiments 
if persons do not live suitably to them ? — Not one of them whom 
thou sees clothed in purple, are completely happy.— And the fame 
of this person, and of his wonderful actions, were diffused through- 
out the Country. — The variety of the productions of genius, like 
that of the operations of nature, are without lir#it.] 

1. Every verb, except in the infinitive mood, or the participle, must 
have a nominative case, either expressed or implied ; as, "Awake 5 arise}" 
that is, " Awake you 5 arise you." 

We shall here add some examples of inaccuracy, in the use of the verb 
without its nominative case. "As it hath pleased him of his goodness to 
give you safe deliverance, and hath preserved you in the great danger/' 
<fcc. The verb hath preserved has here no nominative case, for it cannot 
be properly supplied by the preceding word, him, which is in the objective 
case. It ought to be, " and as he hath preserved you 3" or rather, " and to 
preserve you. ?; " If the calm in which he was born, and lasted so long - , had 
continued 3" " and which lasted," &c. " These we have extracted from 
a historian of undoubted credit, and are the same that were practised," 
&c. 5 "and they are the same." "A man whose inclinations led him to 
be corrupt, and had great abilities to manage the business ;" " and who 
had," &c. "A cloud gathering in the north 5 which we have helped to 
raise, and may quickly break in a storm upon our heads 3" " and which may 
quickly." 

[If the privileges to which he has an undoubted right, and he 
has long enjoyed, should now be wrested from him, would be fla- 
grant injustice. — These curiosities we have imported from China, 
and are similar to those which were some time ago brought from 
Africa.] 

2. Every nominative ease, except the case absolute, and when an ad- 
dress is made to a person, should belong to some verb, either expressed 
or implied: as, "Who wrote this book?" " James 3" that is, "James 
wrote it." " To whom thus Adam," that is, " spoke." 

One or two instances of the improper use of the nominative case, without 
any verb, expressed or implied, to answer it, may be sufficient to illustrate 
the usefulness of the preceding observations. 

" Which rule, if it had been observedj a neighboring prince would have 
wanted a great deal of that incense which hath been offered up to him." 
The pronoun it is here the nominative case to the verb observed ; and 
which rule is left by itself, a nominative case without any verb following it. 
This form of expression, though improper, is very common. It ought to 
be,*' If this rule had been observed," &c. "Man, though he has great 
variety of thoughts, and such from which others as well as himself might 
receive profit and delight, yet they are all within his own breast." In this 
sentence, the nominative man stands alone, and unconnected with any 
verb, either expressed or implied. It should be, " Though man has great 
variety/ 7 &c. 

[Two substantives, token they come together, and do not signify 
the same thing, the former must be in the possessive case. — Virtue, 
however it may be neglected for a time, men are so constituted as 
ultimately to acknowledge and respect genuine merit.] 

3. When a verb comes between two nouns, either of which may be un- 
derstood as the subject of the affirmation, it may agree with either of them \ 

F 



98 SYNTAX. 

but some regard must be had to that which is more naturally the subject of 
it, as also to that which stands next to the verb : as, " His meat v>as locusts 
and wild honey ;" " The restraints put upon it were a great cause of the low 
siate of industry 5" " The wages of sin is death." 

[The crown of virtue are peace and honor. — His chief occupation 
and enjoyment were controversy.] 

4. As, in the use of the case absolute, the case is always the nominative, 
the following example is erroneous, in making it the objective. " Solomon 
was of this mind 5 and I have no doubt he made as wise and true proverbs, 
as any body has done since 5 him only excepted, who was a much greater 
and wiser man than Solomon*" It should be, " he only excepted." 

[Him coming up with his men, the victory was soon won. — Her 
excepted, the whole family returned in good health.] 

5. Some grammarians have contended, that, " When the nominative 
consists of several words, and the last of the nouns is in the plural number, 
the verb is commonly plural :" as, " A part of the exports consist of raw 
silk 5" "A number of men were present:" But this rule counteracts the 
plainest principles of grammar and would justify constructions evidently 
absurd and unfounded, as seen below. 

[The truth of the narratives have never been disputed. — The vir- 
tue of these men are exemplary. — A deviation from good princi- 
ples, soon produce a deviation from good conduct. — The train of 
our ideas are often interrupted.] 

6. The nominative case is commonly placed before the verb ; but some- 
limes it is put after the verb, if it is a simple tense j and between the auxil- 
iary and the verb or participle, if a compound tense 5 as, 

1st. When a question is asked, a command given, or a wish expressed ; 
as, " Confidest thou in me?" "Read thou!" "Mayst thou be happy i" 
" Long live the king I" 

2d. When a supposition is made without the conjunction if; as, " Were it 
not for this 5? " Had I been there." 

3d. When a verb neuter is used ; as, te On a sudden appeared the king." 

4th. When the verb is preceded by the adverbs here, there, then, thence, 
hence, thus, &C.5 as, "Here am 1 5" "There was he slain 3" "Then Com- 
eth the end 5" "Thence arose his grief i" "Hence proceeds his anger 5" 
" Thus was the affair settled." 

5th, When a sentence depends on neither or nor, so as to be coupled with 
another sentence j as/' You shall not eat of it, neither shall you touch it, lest 
you die." 

§62. Two or more nouns or pronouns in the singular 
number, connected together by the conjunction and, require 
verbs and pronouns to agree with them in the plural num- 
ber. 

This rule is often violated ; some instances of which are annexed. " And 
so was also James and John, the sons of Zebedee, who were partners with 
Simon f 9 " and so were also." " All joy, tranquility and peace, even for ever 
and ever, doth dwell 3" " dwell for ever." " By whose power all good and 
evil is distributed 5" " are distributed." " Their Jove, and their hatred, and 
their envy, is now perished ;" " are perished." " The thoughtless and intem- 
perate enjoyment of pleasure, the criminal abuse of it, ana the forgelfulness 



RULES. 99 

of our bein^ accountable creatures, obliterates every serious thought of the 
proper business of life., and effaces the sense of religion and of God 5" it 
ought to be, "obliterate" and '■ efface." 

[Idleness and ignorance is the parent of many vices. — Wisdom 
virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity. — In unity 
consists the welfare and security of every society. — Time and tide 
waits for no man. — His politeness and good disposition was, on fail- 
ure of their effect, entirely changed. — Patience and diligence, like 
faith, removes mountains. — Humility and knowledge, with poor ap- 
parel, excels pride and ignorance under costly attire.] 

1. When the nouns are nearly related, or scarcely distinguishable in sense, 
and sometimes even when they are very different, some authors have thought 
it allowable to put the verbs, nouns and pronouns in the singular number ; as, 
u Tranquility and peace dwells there 5" Si Ignorance and negligence has pro- 
duced the effect ;" " The discomfiture and slaughter was very great." But it 
is evidently contrary to the first principles of grammar, to consider two dis- 
tinct ideas as one, however nice may be their shades of difference; and if 
there be no difference, one of them must be superfluous, and ought to be re- 
jected. 

2. In many complex sentences, it is difficult for learners to determine, 
whether one or more of the clauses are to be considered as the nominative 
case 5 and, consequent!}', whether the verb should be in the singular or the 
plural number. VVe shall, therefore, set down a number of varied examples 
of this nature, which may serve as some government to the scholar with re- 
spect to sentences of a similar construction. " Prosperity, with humility, ren- 
ders its possessor truly amiable," " The ship with all her furniture, was de- 
stroyed." " Not only his estate, his reputation too has suffered by his mis- 
conduct." " The general, also, in conjunction with the officers, has applied 
for redress." " He cannot be justified ; for it is true that the prince, as well 
as the people, was blameworthy." " The king, with his life-guard, has just 
passed through the village." u In the mutual influence of body and soul, 
there is a wisdom, a wonderful wisdom, which we cannot fathom." " Vir- 
tue, honor, nay, even self-interest, conspire to recommend the measure." 
" Patriotism, morality, every public and private consideration, demand our 
submission to just and lawful government." " Nothing delights me so much 
as the works of nature." 

[A long course of time with a variety of accidents and circum- 
stances, are requisite to produce those revolutions. — The king, with 
the lords and commons, form an excellent frame of government. — 
The side A, with the sides B and C, compose the triangle. — The 
fire communicated itself to the bed, which, with the furniture and 
chairs, were all consumed. — One, added to nineteen, make twenty.] 

3. If the singular nouns and pronouns, which are joined together by a cop- 
ulative conjunction, be of several persons, in making the plural pronouns 
agree with them in person, the second person takes the place of the third, and 
the first of both : as, " James, and thou, and I, are attached to our country j" 
" Thou and he shared it between you." 

[Thou, and the gardener, and the huntsman, must share the blame 
of this business amongst them. — My sister and 1, as well as my 
brother, are daily employed in their respective occupations.] 

§63. Two or more nouns or pronouns in the singular 
number, connected together by the conjunction or, or nor 3 



100 SYNTAX. 

require verbs and pronouns to agree with them in the singu- 
lar number. 

The following sentences are variations from this rule : " A man may see 
a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as well as read them in a description ;" 
"readz'J." "Neither character nor dialogue were yet understood 5" "vias 
yet." " It must indeed be confessed, that a lampoon or a satire do not carry 
in them robbery or murder f " does not carry in UP " Death, or some worse 
misfortune, soon divide ihem 5" it ought to be, t( divides." 

[Man's happiness or misery are, in a great measure, put into his 
own hands. — Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, 
which move merely as they are moved. — Despise no infirmity of 
mind or body, nor any condition of life ; for they are, perhaps, to 
be your own lot. — Speaking impatiently to servants, or anything 
that betrays inattention or ill-humor, are certainly criminal. — There 
are many faults in spelling, which neither analogy nor pronuncia- 
tion justify.] 

1 , When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun of different persons, are 
connected by or, or nor, the verb must agree with that person which is placed 
nearest to it : as, " I or thou art to blame ;" u Thou or I am in fault $" " I, 
thou, or he, is the author of itj" " George or I am the person.'*' But it 
would be better to say, " Either I am to blame, or thou art," &-c. 

[Either thou or I art greatly mistaken, in our judgement on this 
subject. — I or thou am the person who must undertake the business 
proposed.] 

2. When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun, or pronoun, and a 
plural one, the verb is made to agree with the plural noun and pronoun ; as, 
" Neither poverty nor riches were injurious to him 5" " I or iheywere offended 
by it." But in this case, the plural noun or pronoun, when it can conveniently 
be done, should be placed next to the verb. 

[Both of the scholars, or one of them at least, was present at the 
transaction. — Whether one person or more, was concerned in the 
business, does not appear. — The cares of this life, or the deceitful- 
ness of riches, has choked the seeds of virtue in many a promising 
mind.] 

§64. A noun of multitude, when it conveys the idea of 
plurality, requires verbs and pronouns to agree with it in the 
plural number ; but when it conveys the idea of unity or 
wholeness, in the singular number. 

We ought to consider whether the term will immediately suggest the idea 
of the number it represents, or whether it exhibits to the mind the idea of the 
whole, as one thing. In the former case, the verb ought to be plural *, in the 
latter, it ought to be singular. Thus, it seems improper to say, " The peasant* 
ry goes barefoot, and the middle sort makes use of wooden shoes." It would 
be better to say, " The peasantry go barefoot, and the middle sort make use," 
&c, because the idea, in both these cases, is that of a number. On the con- 
trary, there is a harshness in the following sentences, in which nouns of num- 
ber have verbs plural, because the ideas they represent seem not to be suffi- 
ciently divided in the mind 1 Ci The court of Rome were not without solicitude," 
". The house of commons were of small weight." *' The house of lords were 



RULES. 101 

so much influenced by these reasons." " Stephen's party were entirely broken 
up by the captivity of their leader/ 7 a An army of twenty-four thousand were 
assembled. ;; " What reason have the church of Rome for proceeding in this 
manner?" " There is indeed no constitution so tame and careless of their 
own defence." " All the virtues of mankind are to be counted upon a few 
fingers, but his follies and vices are innumerable." Is not mankind, in this 
place, a noun of multitude, and such as requires the pronoun referring to il 
to be in the plural number, their ? 

[The people rejoices in that which should give it sorrow. — The 
flock, and not the fleece, are, or ought to be, the objects of the shep- 
herd's care. — This people draweth near to me with their mouth, and 
honoreth me with their lips, but their heart is far from me. — The 
corporation of York consist of a mayor, aldermen, and a common 
council. — The British parliament are composed of king, lords and 
commons. — When the nation complain, the rulers should listen to 
their voice. — In the days of youth, the multitude eagerly pursues 
pleasure as its chief good. — The fleet were seen sailing up the chan- 
nel. — The regiment consist of a thousand men. — The meeting have 
established several salutary regulations. — The council was not 
unanimous, and it separated without coming to any determination. 
— The fleet is all arrived and moored in safety.] 

§65. Pronouns must agree with the nouus for which 
they stand, in gender, number and person. 

Of this rule there are many violations to be met with ; a few of which may 
be sufficient to put the learner on his guard. " Each of the sexes should keep 
within its particular bounds, and content themselves wiih the advantages of 
their particular districts :" better thus., u The sexes should keep within their 
particular bounds," <fcc. u Can any one, on their entrance into the world, be 
fully secure that they shall not be deceived V " on his entrance/' and " thai 
he shall." "One should not think too favorably of ourselves;' 7 "of one's 
self." "He had one acquaintance which poisoned his principles 5" "who 
poisoned." 

Every relative must have an antecedent to which it refers, either expressed 
or implied - as, " Who is fatal to others, is so to himself5 that is, " the man 
who is fatal to others." 

Who, which, what } and the relative that, though in the objective case, are 
always placed before the verb : as are also their compounds, whoever, whoso- 
ever, &c : as, " He whom you seek ;" u This is what, or the thing which, or 
that you want 5" " Whomsoever you please to appoint." 

What is sometimes applied in a manner which appears to be exceptionable: 
as, " AH fevers, except what are called nervous," &c. It would at least be 
better to say, " except those ivhich are called nervous." 

[The mind of man cannot be long without some food to nourish 
the activity of his thoughts. — Rebecca took goodly raiment which 
tcere with her in the house, and put them upon Jacob. — The wheel 
killed another man, which is the sixth which have lost their lives by 
this means. — In religious concerns, or what is conceived to be such, 
every man must stand or fall by the decision of the great Judge. — 
Something like what have been here premised, are the conjectures 
of Dryden.] 

1. Personal pronouns, being used to supply the place of the noun, are not 
employed in the same part of the sentence as the noun which they represent : 

F2 



102 SYNTAX. 

for it would be improper to say, " The king he is just j" u I saw her the 
queen ;" " The men they were there '" " Many words they darken speech 3" 
"■ My banks they are furnished with bees." These personals are superfluous, 
as there is not the least occasion for a substitute in the same part where the 
principal word is present. The nominative case they, in the following sen- 
tence, is also superfluous : " Who, instead of going about doing good, they 
are perpetually intent upon doing mischief." 

[ Whoever entertains such an opinion, he judges erroneously. — 
The cares of this world, they often choke the growth of virtue. — 
Disappointments and afflictions, however disagreeable, they often 
improve us.] 

2. Many persons are apt, in conversation, to put the objective case of the 
personal pronouns, in the place of these and those : as, u give me them books," 
instead of " those books." We may sometimes find this fault even in writing : 
as, " Observe them three there." We also frequently meet with those instead 
of they, at the beginning of a sentence, and where there is no particular ref- 
erence to an antecedent : as, u Those that sow in tears, sometimes reap in 
joy 3" u They that, or they who sow in tears." 

It is not, however, always easy to say, whether a personal pronoun or a 
demonstrative is preferable, in certain constructions. " We are not acquaint- 
ed with the calumny oithem [or those] who openly make use of the warmest 
professions." 

[ Which of them two persons has most distinguished himself? — 
Them oxen sold for fifty dollars apiece. — Wipe them dishes. — See 
them cows run.] 

3. In some dialects, the word what is improperly used for that ,and sometimes 
we find it in this sense in writing: u They will never believe but what 1 have 
been entirely to blame." "lam not satisfied but what 5" &c, instead of 
" but that" The word somewhat, in the following sentence, seems to be used 
improperly : " These punishments seem to have been exercised in somewhat 
an arbitrary manner." Sometimes we read, " In somewhat of." The mean- 
ing is, " in a manner which is, in some respects, arbitrary." 

4. The pronoun relative who is so much appropriated to persons, that 
there is generally harshness in the application of it, except to the proper 
names of persons, or the general terms man, woman, &c. A term which on- 
ly implies the idea ofpersons, and expresses them by some circumstance or 
epithet, will hardly authorize the use of it ; as, u The faction in England ivho 
most powerfully opposed his arbitrary pretensions/' " That faction which," 
would have been better ; and the same remark will serve for the following 
examples : " France, who was in alliance with Sweden." " The comtwho ,*" 
&c. u The cavalry viho," &c. " The cities who aspired at liberty." " That 
party among us who, 1 ' &c. " The family whom they consider as usurpers," 

[He instructed and fed the crowds who surrounded him. — Sidney 
was one of the wisest and most aetive governors whom Ireland had 
enjoyed for several years. — He was the ablest minister whom James 
ever possessed. — The court, who gives currency to manners, ought 
to be exemplary.] 

5. We hardly consider little children as persons, because that term gives 
us the idea of reason and reflection; and therefore, the application of the 
personal relative who, in this case seems to be harsh : " A child who." It is 
still more improperly applied to animals : " A lake frequented by that fowl 
whom nature has taught to dip the wing in water." 



RULES. 103 

[The child lohom we have just seen, is wholesomely fed, and not 
injured by bandages or clothing. — He is like a beast of prey, who 
destroys without pity.] 

6. When the name of a person is used merely as a name, and it does not 
refer to the person, the pronoun who ought not to be applied. " It is no won- 
der if such a man did not shine at the court of queen Elizabeth, who was but 
another name for prudence and economy.' 7 Better thus : " whose name was 
but another word for prudence/' &c The word whose begins likewise to be 
restricted to persons 5 yet it is not done so generally, but that good writers, 
even in prose, use it when speaking of things. The construction is not. how- 
ever, generally pleasing, as we may see in the following instances : " Pleas- 
ure, whose nature, 77 &c " Call every production; whose parts and whose na- 
ture, 77 &c. 

In one case, however, custom authorizes us to use which, with respect to 
persons 5 and that is, when we want to distinguish one person of two, or a 
particular person among a number of others. We should then say, " Which 
of the two/ 7 or " Which of them is he or she V 1 

[Having once disgusted him, he could never regain the favor of 
Nero, who was indeed another name for cruelty. — Flattery, whose 
nature is to deceive and betray, should be avoided as the poisonous 
adder. — Who of those men came to his assistance ?] 

7. As the pronoun relative has no distinction of number, we sometimes 
find an ambiguity in the use of it ; as, when we saj, " The disciples of Christ, 
lohom we imitate/ 7 we may mean the imitation either of Christ, or of his dis- 
ciples. The accuracy and clearness of the sentence depend very much upon 
the proper and determinate use of the relative, so that it may readily present 
its antecedent to the mind of the hearer or reader, without any obscurity or 
ambiguity. 

8. The pronouns whichsoever, icJiosoever, and the like, are elegantly divi- 
ded by the interposition of the corresponding substantives : thus, " On which- 
soever side the king cast his eyes/ 7 would have sounded better, if written, 
" On which side soever/ 7 &c, 

[Howsoever beautiful they appear, they have no real merit. — In 
whatsoever light we view him, his conduct will bear inspection. — 
On whichsoever side they are contemplated, they appear to advan- 
tage.] 

9. The pronoun it, by an idiom peculiar to the English language, is fre- 
quently joined in explanatory sentences, with a noun or pronoun of the mas- 
culine or feminine gender; as, " It was 1 J 77 " It was the man or woman that 
did it. 77 

The pronoun it is sometimes omitted and understood : thus we say, 
"As appears, as follows," for " As it appears, as follows y 7 and " May be,' 7 
for "It may be.' 7 

It is and it was are often used in a plural construction, and by some of our 
best writers : as, " it is either a few great men who decide for the whole, or 
it is the rabble that follow a seditious ring-leader ; 77 " It is they that are the 
real authors, though the soldiers are the actors of the revolution / 7 u It ivas 
the heretics that first began to rail/ 7 &c. ; " 'Tis these that early taint the fe- 
male mind. 77 

10. The pronoun it is sometimes employed to express, 

1st. The subject of any discourse or inquiry : as, * It happened on a sum- 
mer's day;' 7 " Who is it calls on me ?' 7 

F3 



104 SYNTAX. 

2d. The state or condition of any person or thing : as, u How is it with 
you V 7 

3d. The thing, whatever it be, that is the cause of any effect or event ; or 
any person considered merely as a cause ; " We heard her say it was noi so j r ' 
" The truth is, it was I that helped her. 77 

§66. The relative is the nominative case to the verb, 
when no nominative case comes between it and the verb ; 
but when a nominative case comes between the relative and 
the verb, the relative is governed by some word in its own 
member of the sentence. 

A few instances of erroneous construction will illustrate both branches of 
this rule. The three following 1 refer to the first part ; " How can we avoid 
being grateful to those whom, by repeated kind offices, have proved them- 
selves our real friends V 7 " These are the men whom, you might suppose, 
were the authors of the work. 77 " If you were here, you would find three or 
four, whom you would say passed their time agreeably. 77 In all these places, 
it should be who, instead of whom. The two latter sentences contain a nom- 
inative between the relative and the verb ; and, therefore, seem to contra- 
vene the rule ; but the student will reflect, that it is not the nominative of the 
verb with which the relative is connected. — The remaining examples refer to 
the second part of the rule : < Men of fine talents are not always the persons 
who we should esteem. 77 " The persons who you dispute with are precisely 
of your own opinion. 77 e< Our tutors are our benefactors, who we owe obe- 
dience to, and who we ought to love. 77 In these sentences, whom should be 
used instead of who. 

[They who have labored to make us wise and good, are the per- 
sons who we ought to love and respect, and who we ought to be 
grateful to. — The persons, who conscience and virtue support, may 
smile at ihe caprices of fortune. — From the character of those who 
you associate with, your own will be estimated. — We are depen- 
dent on each others' assistance : whom is there that can subsist by 
himself? — If he will not hear his best friend, whom shall be sent to 
admonish him ? — They who much is given to, will have much to 
answer for. — It is not to be expected that they whom in early life 
have been dark and deceitful, should afterwards become fair and in- 
genuous.] 

1. When both the antecedent and relative become nominatives, each to 
different verbs, the relative is the nominative to the former, and the antece- 
dent to the latter verb ; as, " True philosophy, which is the ornament of our 
nature, consists more in the love of our duty, and the practice of virtue, than 
in great talents and extensive knowledge. 77 

2. When the relative pronoun is of the interrogative kind, the noun or pro- 
noun containing the answer, must be in the same case as that which contains 
the question : " Whose books are these V 7 " They are John's. 17 " Who gave 
them to him? 77 " We. 77 " Ofwhomd\d you buy them ? 7? " Of a bookseller; 
him who lives at the Bible and Crown." " Whom did you see there V 
a Both him and the shopman. 77 The learner will readily comprehend this 
rule, by supplying the words which are understood in the answers. Thus to 
express the answers at large, we should say, " They are John 7 s books ;" 
" We gave them io him i u " We bought them of him who lives, 77 &c. 5 " We 
saw both hirn and the shopman.' 7 As the relative pronoun when used inter- 
rogatively, refers to the subsequent word or phrase containing the answer to 



RULES. 105 

the question, that word or phrase may properly be termed the subsequent to 
the interrogative; 

[Of whom were the articles bought? Of a mercer; he who re- 
sides near the mansion-house. — Was any person besides the mercer 
present? Yes both him and his clerk. — Who was the money paid 
to ? To the mercer and his clerk. — Who counted it ? Both the clerk 
and him.] 

§67. When the relative is preceded by two nominatives 
of different persons, the relative and verb may agree in per- 
son with either, according to the sense : as, n I am the man 
who command you ;" or, " 1 am the man who commands 
you." 

The form of the first of the two preceding 1 sentences expresses the meaning" 
rather obscurely. It would be more perspicuous to say, " I, who command 
you, am the man." Perhaps the difference of meaning produced by refer- 
ring the relative to different antecedents, will be more evident to the learner 
in the following sentences : " I am the general who gives the orders to-day ;" 
" I am the general, who give the orders to-day ;" that is, " I, who give the 
orders to-day, am the general. " 

When the relative and the verb have been determined to agree with either 
of the preceding nominatives, that agreement must be preserved throughout 
the sentence 5 as in the following instance : " I am the Lord, that maketh all 
things: that stretcheth forth the heavens alone." Isa. xliv.24. Thus far is 
consistent : the Lord, in the third person is the antecedent, and the verb 
agrees with the relative in the third person. If 1 were made the antecedent, 
the relative and verb should agree with it in the first person : as, " J am the 
Lord, that make all things : that stretch forth the heavens alone/' But should 
it follow, " that spreadeth abroad the earth by myself," there would arise a 
confusion of persons, and a manifest solecism. 

§68. Adjective pronouns and numerals must agree in 
number with the nouns to which they belong. 

A few instances of the breach of this rule are here exhibited : "I have not 
travelled this twenty years :" " these twenty." "lam not lecommending 
these kind of sufferings : ;; " this kind." Those set of books was a valuable 
present :" ■' that set." 

[These, kind of indulgences soften and injure the mind. — Instead 
of improving yourselves, you have been playing this two hours. — 
Those sort of favors did real injury, under the appearance of kind- 
ness. — The chasm made by the earthquake was twenty foot broad, 
and one hundred fathom in depth. — He saw one or more persons 
enter the garden.] 

1. When two persons or things are spoken of in a sentence, and there is 
occasion to mention them again for the sake of distinction, that is used in ref- 
erence to the former, and this, in reference to the latter : as, " Self-love, 
which is the spring of action in the soul, is ruled by reason : but for that, man 
would be inactive : and but for this, he would be active to no end." 

[Religion raises men above themselves ; irreligion sinks them be- 
neath the brutes : that binds them down to a poor, pitiable speck of 



106 SYNTAX. 

perishable earth ; this opens for them a prospect to the skies. — Rex 
and Tyrannus are of very different characters. The one rules his 
people by laws to which they consent; the other, by his absolute 
will and power ; this is called freedom ; that tyranny.] 

2. The distributive adjective pronouns each, every, either, agree with the 
nouns, pronouns and verbs, of the singular number only: as, 'The king of 
Israel and Jehosaphat, the king of Judah, sat each on Ms throne ; ; * Every 
tree is known by its fruit; 7 unless the plural noun convey a collective ideas 
as/ Every six months, 7 •' Every hundred years. 7 The following three phra- 
ses are exceptionable ; ' Let each esteem oihers better than themselves ; 7 it 
ought to be, ' himself. 1 ' The language should be both perspicuous and cor- 
rect: in proportion as either of these two qualities are wanting, the language 
is imperfect ; 7 it should be, ' is wanting. 7 ' Every one of the letters bear reg- 
lar dates, and contain proofs of attachment ; 7 ' bears a regular date and con- 
tains? ' Every town and village were burned \ every grove and every tree 
were cut down } 7 ' was burned, and was cut down. 7 

Either is often used improperly, instead of each; as, ' The king of Israel, 
and Jehosaphat the king of Judah, sat either of them on his throne ; 7 ' Nadab 
and Abihu, the sons of Aaron, took either of them his censer.' Each signi- 
fies both of them taken distinctly or separately ; either properly signifies only 
the one or the other of them taken disjunctively. 

[Every person, whatever be their station, are bound by the du- 
ties of morality and religion. — Every leaf, every twig", every drop 
of water, teem with life. — Every man's heart and temper is produc- 
tive of much inward joy or bitterness. — Whatever he undertakes, 
either his pride or his folly disgust us. — Every man and every 
woman were numbered. — Neither of those men seem to have any 
idea that their opinions may be ill founded. — On either side of the 
river was there the tree of life.] 

§69. Adjectives and adjective pronouns belong to nouns 
or pronouns, which they qualify, describe or point out. 

1. The adjective is usually placed before its substantive : as, " A generous 
man ;" " How amiable a woman !" The instances in which it comes sifter the 
substantive, are the following: 

1st. When something depends upon the adjective ; and when it gives a better 
sound, especially in poetry: as, " A man generous to his enemies ;" " Feed me 
with food convenient for me f " A tree three feet thick ,*" " A body of troops fifty 
thousand strong ;" " The torrent tumbling through rocks abrupt." 

2d. When the adjective is emphatical: as, " Alexander the Great ;" " Lewis 
the Bold ;" u Goodness infinite ;" "Wisdom unsearchable." 

3d. When several adjectives belong to one substantive : as, " A man just, wise, 
and charitable ;" " A woman modest, sensible, and virtuous. " 

4th. When the adjective is preceded by an adverb : as, " A boy regularly stu- 
dious j" " A girl unaffectedly modest." 

5th. When the verb to be, in any of its variations, comes between a substantive 
and an adjective, the adjective may frequently either precede or follow it: as, 
" The man is happy," or, C: Happy is the man, who makes virtue his choice ;" 
" The interview was delightful," or, " Delightful was the interview." 

6th. When the adjective expresses some circumstance of a substantive placed 
after an active verb : as, "Vanity often renders its possessor despicable." In an 
exclamatory sentence, the adjective generally precedes the substantive : as, 
u How despicable does vanity often render its possessor. " 

There is sometimes great beauty, as well as force, in placing the adjective be- 
fore the verb, and the substantive immediately after it: as, " Great is the Lord ! 
just and true are thy ways, thou King of saints ! " 

Sometimes the wo.d all is emphatically put after a number of particulars com- 
prehended under it. " Ambition, interest, honor, all concurred." Sometimes a 



RULES. 107 

substantive, which likewise comprehends the preceding particulars, is used in 
conjunction with the adjective: as, "Royalists, republicans, churchmen, sec- 
retaries, courtiers, allparties, concurred in the illusion." 

An adjective pronoun, in the plural number, will sometimes properly associate 
with a singular noun : as, " Our desire, your intention, their resignation." This 
association applies rather to things of an intellectual nature, than to. those which 
are corporeal. It forms an exception to the general rule. 

A substantive with its adjective is reckoned as one compound word ; whence 
they often take another adjective, and sometimes a third, and so on : as, •• An 
old man ; a good old man ; a very learned, judicious, good old man." 

Though the adjective always relates to a substantive, it is, in many instances, 
put as if it were absolute ; especially where the noun has been mentioned be- 
fore, or easily understood, though not expressed. 

2. Double comparatives and superlatives should be avoided : such as " a wor- 
ser conduct ;" " on lesser hopes j" " a more serener temper ;" " the most strait- 
est sect ;" " a more superior work." They should be, " worse conduct;" " less 
hopes ;" " a more serene temper ;" '* the straitest sect ," " a superior 
work." 

[* Tis more easier to build two chimneys than to maintain one. — 
The tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the faster the lesser 
weight it carries. — The Most Highest hath created us for his glory, 
and our happiness. — The pleasures of the understanding are more 
preferable than those of the imagination, or of sense. — The nightin- 
gale sings : hers is the sweetest voice in the grove. — The Supreme 
Being is the most powerfullest, and the best of beings.] 

3. Adjectives that have in themselves a superlative signification, do not proper- 
ly admit of the superlative or comparative form superadded ; such as chief, extreme, 
perfect, right, universal, supreme, &c. ; which are sometimes improperly written 
chiefest, extremest, perfectest, Tightest, most universal, most supreme, &c. The fol- 
lowing expressions are, therefore, improper : " He sometimes claims admission to 
the chiefest offices." " The quarrel became so universal and national." " A 
method of attaining the rightest and greatest happiness." The phrases " so per- 
fect," " so right," " so extreme," &c, are incorrect; because they imply that 
one thing is less perfect, less extreme, Sec, than another, which is not possible. 

[Virtue confers the supremest dignity on man ; and should be his 
chiefest desire. — His assertion was more true than that of his oppo- 
nent; nay, the words of the latter were most untrue. — His work is 
perfect; his brother's more perfect; and his father's, the most per- 
fect of all.] 

4L: Inaccuracies are often found in the way in which the degrees of compari- 
son are applied and construed. The following are examples of wrong construc- 
tion in this respect : " This noble nation hath, of all others, admitted fewer cor- 
ruptions." The word fewer is here construed precisely as if it were the superla- 
tive. It should be, " This noble nation hath admitted fewer corruptions than 
any other." We commonly say, *' This is the weaker of the two," or, " the 
weakest of the two ;" but the former is the regular mode of expression, because 
there are only two things compared. " The vice of covetousness is what enters 
deepest into the soul of any other." " He celebrates the church of England as 
the most perfect of all others." Both these modes of expression are faulty : we 
should not say, " the best of any man," or " the best of any other man," for" the 
best of men." The sentences may be corrected by substituting the comparative 
in the room of the superlative : " The vice, &c, is what enters deeper into the 
soul than any other." tC He celebrates, &c, as more perfect than any other." 
It is also possible to retain the superlative, and render the expression grammati- 
cal : " Covetousness, of all vices, enters the deepest into the soul." *■ He cele- 
brates, &c, as the most perfect of all churches." These sentences contain other 
errors, against which it is proper to caution the learner. The words deeper and 
deepest, being intended for adverbs, should have been more deeply, most deeply. 
The phrases more perfect and most perfect are improper ; because perfection admits 



108 SYNTAX. 

of no degrees of comparison. We may say, nearer or nearest to perfection, or 
more or less imperfect. 

5. In some cases, adjectives should not be separated from their substantives, 
even by words which modify their meaning, and make but one sense with them ; 
as, " A large enough number, surely.' ' It should be, " A number large enough. " 
" The lower sort of people are good enough judges of one not very distant from 
them." 

[He spoke in a distinct enough manner to be heard by the whole 
assembly. — Thomas is equipped with a new pair of shoes, and a 
new pair of gloves : he is the servant of an old rich man.— The two 
first in the row are cherry-trees, the two others are pear trees.] 

6. The adjectives a and the are often properly omitted : when used, they 
should be justly applied, according to their distinct nature : as, " Gold is cotrupt- 
ing ; the sea is green ; a lion is bold." 

The following passage will serve as an example of the different uses of a and 
the, and of the force of the substantive without either of them : "Man was made 
for society, and ought to extend his good will to all men ; but a man will natu- 
rally entertain a more particular kindness for the men with whom he has the 
most frequent intercourse ; and enter into a still closer union with the man whose 
temper and disposition suit best with his own." 

As a and the are sometimes misapplied, it may be of some use to exhibit a few 
instances ; " And I persecuted this way unto the death." The apostle does not 
mean any particular sort of death, but death, in general: the definite article, 
therefore, is improperly used ; it ought to be, " unto death," without any article. 

" When he, the Spirit of truth, is come, he will guide you into all truth ;" that 
is, according to this translation, " into all truth whatsoever, into truth of all 
kinds ;" — very different from the meaning of the evangelist, and from the origin- 
al, M into all the truth j" that is, " into all evangelical truth, all truth necessary 
for you to know." 

" Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel ?" it onght to be " the wheel," u?ed as 
an instrument for the particular purpose of torturing criminals. " The Almighty 
hath given reason to a man to be a light unto him :" it should rather be, " to 
maw," in general. " This day is salvation come to this house, forasmuch as he 
also is the son of Abraham :" it ought to be, " a son of Abraham." 

7. A nice distinction of the sense is sometimes made by the use or omission of 
a. If I say, " He behaved with a little reverence," my meaning is positive. If 
I say, " He behaved with little reverence," my meaning is negative. And these 
two are by no means the same, or to be used in the same cases. By the former, 
1 rather praise a person ; by the latter, I dispraise him. For the sake of this dis- 
tinction, which is a very useful one, we may better bear the seeming impropriety 
of the definitive a before nouns of number. When I say, " There were few men 
with him," I speak diminutively, and mean to represent them as inconsiderable : 
whereas, when I say, u There were a few men with him," I evidently intend 
to make the most of them. 

[He has been much censured for conducting himself with a little 
attention to his business. — So bold a breach of order called for little 
severity in punishing the offender. — His error was accompanied 
with so little contrition and candid acknowledgement, that he found 
a few persons to intercede for him. — As his misfortunes were the 
fruit of his own obstinacy, a few persons pitied him.] 

In common conversation, and in familiar style, we frequently omit the definitive 
the, which might be inserted with propriety in writing, especially in a grave style. 
€< At worst, time might be gained by this expedient." " At the worst," would 
have been better in this place. " Give me here John Baptist's head." There 
would have been more dignity in saying, " John the Baptist's head 3" or, " The 
head of John the Baptist." 

The has sometimes a good effect in distinguishing a person by an epithet. " In 
the history of Henry the Fourth, by Father Daniel, we are surprised at not find- 
ing him the great man." " I own I am often surprised that he should have treated 
so coldly a man so much the gentleman." " And Nathan said to David, thou art 
the man." 



RULES. 109 

This adjective is often elegantly put, after the manner of the Fiench, for the 
pronoun positive : as, " He looks him full in the face;" that is, u in his face." 
■• In his presence they were to strike the forehead on the ground ;" that is, " their 
foreheads." 

§70. Adjectives are often used as adverbs, and as such 
qualify the same parts of speech that adverbs do. 

1. " Open thy hand wide." We observe in this passage, that wide has a con- 
nection with the verb open ; for it is not " open thy wide hand ;" but the attribute 
is supposed to be the effect of the act of opening. Nor can the modifier, widely, 
be used ; for it is not simply the manner of the act which is intended ; but the 
effect. 

"Let us write slow and exact." We might perhaps substitute slowly for slow, 
as describing only the manner of writing; but exactly cannot be substituted for 
exact ,• for this word is intended to denote the effect of writing, in the correctness 
of what is written. The attribute expresses the idea with a happy precision and 
brevity. 

As this is one of the most common, as well as most beautiful idioms of our lan- 
guage, which has hitherto escaped due observation, the following authorities are 
subjoined to illustrate and justify the rule. 

u We could hear distinctly the bells — which sounded sweetly soft and pensive." 
— Chandler's Travels, ch. 2. 

" A southerly wind succeeded blowing fresh." — lb. v. 2. 3. 

"His provisions were grown very short." — Burchctfs Nov. Hist. 357. 

ft' When the caloric exists ready combined with the water of solution." — 
Lavoisier. Trans, ch. 5. 

»« The purest clay is that which burns white." — Ency. Art. Chemistry. 

«< Drink deep or taste not the Pierian spring." — Pope. 

" Heaven opened wide her ever during gates." — Milton, P. L. 7. 

" The victory of the ministry cost them dear." — Hume, Contin. 11. 9. 

" And just as short of reason he must fall." — Pope. 

" Thick and more thick the steely circle grows." — HooWs Tasso, b. 8. 

«« Anchus marched strait to Fidenas." — Hook. Rom. Hist. 1. 6. 

«< The cakes eat short and cr'sp." — Vicar, of Wakefield. 

" A steep ascent of steps which were cut close and deep into the rocks." — Hamp- 
ton's Polybius, 2, 65. 

" It makes the plow go deep or shallow." — Enc. Art. Agri. 

<« The king's ships were getting ready." — Lusind, 1. 91. 

< e After growing old in attendance." — Spect. No. 282. 

•• The sun shineth watery." — Bacon, Apoph. 

'* Soft sighed the flute."— Thompson, Spring-. 

" 1 made him just and right." — Milton, 3. 98. 

" He drew not nigh unheard." — Ibm. 645. 

* When the vowel of the preceding syllable is pronounced short." — Murray. 

•< Here grass is cut close and gravel rolled smooth. Is not that trim?" — Bos- 
well, Johnson, 3. 

" Slow tolls the village c\ock— deep mourns the turtle." — Beattie's Minstrel. 

" If you would try to live independent." — Pope, Let. 

" Fxill many a gem with purest ray serene." — Gray. 

11 Some deemed him tcondrous 7cise." — Beattie's Minstrel. 

** He is a trifle larger than his brother." 

Authors, misguided by Latin Rules, and conceiving that every word which is 
used to qualify a verb, must be an adverb, have pronounced many of the passages 
here recited and similar ones to be incorrect — and in such as are too well estab- 
lished to bear censure, they call the adjective an adverb. Were it not for this in- 
fluence in early education, which impresses a notion that all languages must be 
formed with the like idioms, we should never have received an idea that the 
same word may not modify a noun, an adjective, a verb, and an adverb. 

So far are the words here used from being adverbs, that they cannot be chang- 
ed into adverbs, without impairing the beauty, weakening the force or destroy- 
ing the meaning of the passages. Let the sentences be put to the test — Magne- 
sia feels smoothly— the cakes eat shortly and crisply — the apples boil softly or 
hardly— glows not her blush the more fairly. Every English ear rejects this al- 
teration at once— the sentences become nonsense. Nor can the attribute be sep- 
arated from the verb—" Amid her smiles, her blushes, being lovelier, gluw"— 



110 SYNTAX. 

this is not the sense — nor will it answer to say, " her lovelier blushes glow' 3 — 
this is not the idea. The sense is, that the attribute expressed by lovelier, is not 
only a quality of blushes, but a quality derived, in a degree, from the action of the 
verb, glow.* 

2. Adjectives are sometimes improperly applied as adverbs : as, " indifferent 
honest; excellent well ; miserable poor ;" instead of " indifferently honest ; ex- 
cellently well ; miserably poor." " He behaved himself conformable to that 
great example j" " conformably." " Endeavor to live hereafter suitable to a per- 
son in thy station ;" " suitably." {, I can never think so mean of him ;" "mearily." 
•* He describes the river agreeable to the common reading;" "agreeably." 
" Agreeable to my promise, I now write;" "agreeably." "Thy exceeding 
great reward ;" when united to an adjective, or adverb not ending in ly, the 
word exceeding has ly added to it : as, " exceedingly dreadful ; exceedingly great ; 
exceedingly well ; exceedingly more active :" but when it is joined to an adverb 
or adjective, having that termination, the ly is omitted : as, " Some men think 
exceeding clearly, and reason exceeding forcibly ;" " She appeared, on this occa- 
sion, exceeding lovely.'' — " He acted in this business bolder than was expected." 
" They behaved the noblest, because they were disinterested." They should 
have been, " more boldly, most nobly." The adjective pronoun such is often mis- 
applied : as, " He was such an extravagant young man, that he spent his whole 
patrimony in a few years;" it should be, " so extravagant a young man." " I 
never before saw such large trees;" " saw trees so large." When we refer to 
the species or nature of a thing, the word such is properly applied : as, " Such a 
temper is seldom found :" but when degree is signified, we use the word so .• as, 
" So bad a temper is seldom found." 

The verb to be, in all its moods and tenses, generally requires the word imme- 
diately connected with it to be an adjective, not an adverb. 

Adverbs are likewise improperly used as adjectives : as, " The tutor addressed 
him in terms rather warm, but suitably to the offence j" rt suitable.'''' 

[She reads proper, writes very neat, and composes accurate. — 
He was extreme prodigal, and his property is now near exhausted. 
— The conspiracy was the easier discovered, from its being known 
to many. — Not being fully acquainted with the subject, he could 
affirm no stronger than he did. — He was so deeply impressed with 
the subject, that few could speak nobler upon it. — We may credit 
his testimony, for he says express, that he saw the transaction. — 
Use a little wine for thy stomach's sake, and thine often infirmi- 
ities. — From these favorable beginnings, we may hope for a soon 
and prosperous issue. — He addressed several exhortations to them 
suitably to their circumstances.] 

§71. A noun placed before another noun limiting its 
meaning, is in the possessive case. 

[My ancestors virtue is not mine. — His brothers offence will not 
condemn him. — I will not destroy the city for ten sake. — Never- 
theless, Asa his heart was perfect with the Lord.— A mothers ten- 
derness and a fathers care are nature sgifts for mans advantage. — 
A mans manners' frequently influence his fortune. — Wisdoms pre- 
cepts' form the good mans interest and happiness.] 

1. If several nouns come together in the possessive case, the apostrophe with 
s is annexed to the last, and understood of the rest : as, M John and Eliza's 
book ;" " This was my father, mother and uncle's advice." But when any 
words intervene, perhaps on account of the increased pause, the sign of the pos- 
sessive should be annexed to each: as, "They are John's as well as Eliza's 
books j" "I had the physician's, the surgeon's and the apothecary's assistance." 

*The foregoing remarks of this section are from the Grammar of N. Webster. 



RULES. Ill 

[It was the mens, women's and children's lot to suffer great ca- 
lamities. — Peter's, John's and Andrew's occupation was that of 
fishermen. — This measure gained the king, as well as the people's 
approbation. — Not only the counsel's and attorney's, but the judge's 
opinion also, favored his cause." 

2. In poetry, the additional 5 is frequently omitted, but the apostrophe retain- 
ed, in the same manner as in substantives of the plural number, ending in s : as, 
" The wrath of Peleus' son." This seems not so allowable in prose, which the 
following erroneous examples will demonstrate : " Moses' minister ;" " Phine- 
has' wife j" " Festus came into Felix' room f " These answers were made to 
the witness' questions." But in cases which would give too much of the hissing 
sound, or increase the difficulty of pronunciation, the omission takes place even 
in prose : as, " For righteousness' sake ;" '* For conscience' sake." 

[And he cast himself down at Jesus feet — Moses rod was turned 
into a serpent. — For Herodias sake, his brother Philip's wife. — If 
ye suffer for righteousness' sake, happy are ye. — You should be 
subject for conscience's sake.] 

3. Little explanatory circumstances are particularly awkward betweeu a pos- 
sessive case and the word which usually follows it : as, •• She began to extol the 
farmer's, as she called him, excellent understanding." It ought to be, " the ex- 
cellent understanding of the farmer, as she called him." 

[They very justly condemned the prodigal's, as he was called, 
senseless and extravagant conduct. — They implicitly obeyed the 
protector's, as they called him, imperious mandates.] 

4. When a sentence consists of terms signifying a name and an office, or of 
any expressions by which one part is descriptive or explanatory of the other, it 
may occasion some doubt to which of them the sign of the possessive case should 
be annexed ; or whether it should be subjoined to them both. Thus, some would 
say, " I left the parcel at Smith's the bookseller ;" others, " at Smith the book- 
seller's j" and perhaps others, " at Smith's, the bookseller's." The first of these 
forms is most agreeable to the English idiom ; and if the addition consists of two 
or more words, the case seems to be less dubious : as, " I left the parcel at 
Smith's, the bookseller and stationer." 

A phrase in which the words are so connected and dependent, as to admit of 
no pause before the conclusion, necessarily requires the possessive sign at or near 
the end of the phrase : as, " Whose prerogative is it ? It is the king of Great Brit- 
ain's;" " This is the duke of Bridgewater's canal ;" " The bishop of LandafF's 
excellent book ;" " The lord mayor of London's authority;" »« The captain of the 
guard" house." 

When words in apposition follow each other in quick succession, it seems also 
most agreeable to our idiom, to give the sign of the possessive a similar situation ; 
especially if the noun which governs the possessive be expressed : as, " The em- 
peror, Leopold's ;" " Dionysius the tyrant's;' " For David my servant's sake ;" 
" Give me John the Baptist's head ;" " Paul the apostle's advice." But when a 
pause is proper, and the governing noun not expressed ; and when the latter part 
of the sentence is extended ; it appears to be requisite that the sign should be ap- 
plied to the first possessive, and understood to the other : as, " I reside at lord 
Stormont's, my old patron and benefactor ;" " Whose glory did he emulate ? lie 
emulated Caesar's, the greatest general of antiquity." 

[I bought the knives at Johnson's the cutler's. — The silk was 
purchased at Brown's the mercer's and haberdasher s. — Lord Fe- 
versham's the general's tent. — This palace had been the grand sul- 
tan's Mahomet's. — I will not for David's thy father's sake. — He 
took refuge at the governor, the king's representative's. — Whose 
works are these ? They are Cicero, the most eloquent of men's.] 

5. The possessive has often an unpleasant sound ; so that we daily make mor e 
use of the particle 0/, to express the same relation. There is something awkward 



112 SYNTAX. 

in the following sentences, in which this method has not been taken : " The gen 
eral, in the army's name, published a declaration j" "The commons' vote;'' 
"The lords' house ;" " Unless he is very ignorant of the kingdom's condition ;" 
It were certainly better to say, " In 8 the name of the army ;" " The vote of the 
commons ;" " The house of lords ;" " The condition of the kingdom." Jt is also 
rather harsh to use two English possessives with the same substantive: as, 
" Whom he acquainted with the pope's and the king's pleasure." " The pleas- 
ure of the pope and the kins," would have been better. 

We sometimes meet with three substantives dependent on one another, and 
connected by the preposition of applied to each of them : as, " The severity ot the 
distress of the son of the king, touched the nation ;" but this mode of expression 
is not to be recommended. It would be better to say, "The severe distress of 
the king's son touched the nation." We have a striking instance of this labori- 
ous mode of expression in the following sentence : " O/the books of some of each 
of these classes of literature, a catalogue will Le given at the end of the work." 

The preposition of, joined to a substantive, is not always equivalent to the pos- 
sessive case. It is only so when the expression can be converted into the regular 
form of the possessive case. We can say, " The reward of virtue," and " Vir- 
tue's reward;" but though it is proper to say, " A crown of gold," we cannot 
convert the expression into the possessive case, and say, "Gold's crown." 

6. In some cases we use both the possessive termination and the preposition 
of; as, "It is a discovery of Sir Isaac JNewton's." Sometimes, indeed, unless 
we throw the sentence into another form, this method is absolutely necessary, in 
order to distinguish the sense, and to give the idea of property, strictly so called, 
which is the most important of the relations expressed by the possessive case; — 
for the expressions, "This pciture of my friend," and " This picture of my 
friend's," suggest very different ideas. The latter only is that of property, in the 
strictest sense. The idea would, doubtless, be conveyed in a better manner by 
saying, " This picture, belonging to my friend." 

[That picture of the king's does not much resemble him. — These 
pictures of the king were sent to him from Italy. — This estate of 
the corporation's is much encumbered. — That is the eldest son of 
the king of England's.] 

7. When an entire clause of a sentence, beginning with a participle of the 
present tense, is used as one name, or to express one idea or circumstance, the 
noun on which it depends may be put in the possessive case : thus, instead of 
saying, " What is the reason of this person dismissing his servant so hastily ?" 
that is, " What is the reason of this person in dismissing his servant so hastily? " 
we may say, and perhaps ought to say, " What is the reason of this person's dis- 
missing of his servant so hastily ?" just as we say, " What is the reason of this 
person's hasty dismission of his servant?" So also we say, " I remember it be- 
ing reckoned a great exploit ;" or, more properly, " I remember its being reckon- 
ed," &c. The following sentence is correct and proper : " Much will depend on 
the pupil's composing, but more on his reading frequently." 

[What can be the cause of the parliament neglecting so impor- 
tant a business. — Much depends on this rule being observed. — The 
time of William making the experiment, at length arrived. — Such 
will ever be the effect of youth associating with vicious compan- 
ions.] 

§72. Active transitive verbs and their participles are 
followed by the objective case. 

1. In English, the nominative case, denoting the subject, usually goes before 
the verb ; and the objective case, denoting the object, follows the verb active ; 
and it is the order that determines the case in nouns .- as, " Alexander conquered 
the Persians." But the pronoun, having a proper form for eacli of those cases, is 
sometimes, when it id in the objective case, placed before the verb; and, when 
it is in the nominative case, follows the object and the verb : as, " Whom, ye 
ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you." 



RULES. 113 

This position of the pronoun sometimes occasions its proper case and govern- 
ment to be neglected j as in the following instances : " Who should I esteem 
more than the wise and good ?" " By the character of those who you choose for 
your friends, your own is likely to be formed." " Those are the persons who he 
thought true to his interests." "Who should I see the other day but my old 
friend ?»» M Whosoever the court favors." In all these places, it ought to be 
whom, the relative being governed in the objective case by the verb esteem, choose, 
thought, &.c. " He, who, under all proper circumstances, has the boldness to 
speak truth, choose for thy friend j" it should be, " him, who," &c. 

[They who opulence has made proud, and who luxury has cor- 
rupted, cannot relish the simple pleasures of nature. — You have 
reason to dread his wrath, which one day will destroy ye both. — 
Who have I reason to love so much as this friend of my youth ? — 
Ye, who were dead, hath he quickened. — She that is idle and mis- 
chievous, reprove sharply. — Who did they send to him on so impor- 
tant an errand ? — Who did they entertain so freely? — The man who 
he raised from obscurity, is dead. — Ye only have I known of all the 
families of the earth. — He and they we know, but who are you ?] 

2. Some writers, however, use certain inactive or intransitive verbs as if they 
were transitive, putting after them the objective case, agreeably to the French 
construction of reciprocal verbs ; but this custom is so foreign to the idiom of the 
English tongue, that it ought not to be adopted or imitated. The following are 
some instances of this practice : " Repenting him of his design." " The king 
soon found reason to repent him of his provoking such dangerous enemies." 
" The popular lords did not fail to enlarge themselves on the subject." il The 
nearer his success approached him to the throne." " T think it by no means a fit 
and decent thing to vie charities," &c. " Go, flee thee away into the land of 
Judah." " They have spent their whole time and pains to agree the sacred with 
the profane chronology." 

Active transitive verbs are sometimes as improperly made inactive or intransi- 
tive : as, u I must premise with three circumstances j" *' Those who think to in- 
gratiate with him by calumniating me." 

3. The present participle with a definitive before it, becomes a noun and must 
have the preposition of after it : as, " These are the rules of grammar, by the 
observing of which, you may avoid mistakes." It would not be proper to say, 
•* by the observing which," nor, " by observing of which ;" but the phrase, with- 
out either definitive or preposition, would be right : as, " by observing which." 
41 This was a betraying of the trust reposed in him." 

This rule arises from the nature and idiom of our language, and from as plain a 
principle as any on which it is founded ; namely, that a word which has 
a definitive before it, and the possessive preposition of after it, must be a noun ; 
and, if a noun, it ought to follow the construction of a noun, and not to have the 
regimen of a verb. It is the participial termination of this sort of words, that is 
apt to deceive us, and make us treat them as if they were of an amphibious spe- 
cies, partly nouns and partly verbs. 

The following are a few examples of the violation of this rule : "He was sent 
to prepare the way by preaching of repentance ;" it ought to be, " by the preach- 
ing of repentance," or, •■ by preaching repentance." " By the continual mortify- 
ing our corrupt affections;" it should be, " by the continual mortifying 0/," or, 
" by continually mortifying our corrupt affections." M They laid out themselves 
towards the advancing and promoting the good of it j" " towards advancing and 
promoting the good." " It is an overvaluing ourselves," or, " an overvaluing of 
ourselves." •* Keeping of one day in seyen," &c. 3 it onght to be, " the keeping 
of one day," or, " keeping one day." 

A phrase in which the definitive precedes the present participle, and the pos- 
sessive preposition follows it, will not, in every instance, convey the same mean- 
ing as would be conveyed by the participle without the definitive and preposition. 
11 He expressed the pleasure he had in the hearing of the philosopher," is capable 
of a different sense ficm. " He expressed the pleasure he had in hearing the phi- 
losopher," When, therefore, we wish, for the sake of harmony or variety, to 
substitute one of these phraseologies for the other, we should previously consider 
whether they are perfectly similar in the sentiments they convey. 

F4 



114 SYNTAX. 

§73. Two or more nouns or pronouns in the same sen- 
tence, signifying the same thing, are put in apposition in 
the same case. 

The following'sentences contain deviations from this rule, and exhibit the pro- 
noun in a wrong case. fl It might have been him, but there is no proof of it." 
'* Though I was blamed, it could not have been me." " I saw one whom I took 
to be she." " She is the person, who I understood it to have been." " Who do 
you think me to be ?" " Whom do men say that I am ?" " And whom think ye 
that I am?" 

[Well may you be afraid ; it is him indeed. — I would act the 
same part, if I were him, or in his situation. — Search the Scriptures, 
for in them you think you have eternal life ; and they are them which 
testify of me. — Be composed : it is me : you have no cause for fear. 
— I cannot tell who has befriended me, unless it is him from whom 
I have received many benefits. — 1 know not whether it were them 
who conducted the business ; but I am certain it was not him. — 
He so much resembled my brother, that, at first sight, I took it to 
be he. — After all their professions, is it possible to be them? — It 
could not have been her, for she always behaves discreetly. — If it 
was not him, who do you imagine it to have been? — Who do you 
think him to be ? — Whom do the people say that I am ?] 

§74. In the use of words and phrases which, in point of 
time, relate to each other, a due regard to that relation 
should be observed. Instead of saying, " The Lord hath 
given, and the Lord hath taken away," we should say, M The 
Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away." 

1. It is not easy to give particular rules for the management of the moods and 
tenses of verbs with respect to one another, so that they may be proper and con- 
sistent. The best rule that can be given, is this very general one — " To observe 
what the sense necessarily requires." It may, however, be of use to give a few 
examples of irregular construction. " The last week I intended to have written," 
is a very common phrase ; the infinitive being in the past time, as well as the verb 
which it follows. But it is certainly wrong ; for how long soever it now is since 
I thought of writing, to write was then present to me, and must still be considered 
as present, when I bring back that time, and the thoughts of it. It ought, there- 
fore, to be, " The last week I intended to write." The following sentences are 
also erroneous : f I cannot excuse the remissness of those whose business it 
should have been, as it certainly was their interest, to have interposed their good 
offices." " There were two circumstances which made it necessary for them to 
have lost no time." " History painters would have found it difficult to have in- 
vented such a species of beings." They ought to be, to interpose, to lose, to invent. 
" On the morrow, because he would have known the certainty wherefore he was 
accused of the Jews, he loosed him." It ought to be, " because he icould know," 
or, rather, " being willing to know." •' The blind man said unto him, Lord t that 
I might receive my sight." " Jf by any means 1 might attain unto the resurrec- 
tion of the dead." May, in both places, would have been better. " From his 
biblical knowledge, he appears to study the Scriptures with great attention ;" 
" to have studied," &c. " I feared that I should have lost, it, before I arrived at 
the city j" " should lose it." " I had rather walk ;" it should be, " 1 would rather 
walk." " It would have afforded me no satisfaction, if I eould perform it j" it 
should be, " if I could have performed it j" or, " It would afford me no satisfaction 
if I could perform it. 1 ' 

To preserve consistency in the time of verbs, we must recollect that, in the 
subjunctive mood, the present and imperfect tenses often carry with them a future 



RULES. 115 

sense ; and that the auxiliaries should and would, in the Imperfect times, are used 
to express the present or future, as well as the past. 

[The next new year's day 1 shall be at school three years. — And 
he that was dead sat up and began to speak. — I should be obliged 
to him, if he will gratify me in that particular. — They maintained 
that scripture conclusion, that all mankind rise from the dead. — - 
John will earn his wages when his service is completed. — Ye will 
not come unto me that ye might have life. — Be that as it ioill 3 he 
cannot justify his conduct. — I have been at London a year, and 
seen the king last summer.] 

2. It is proper to inform the learner, that, in order to express the past 
time with the defective verb ought, the perfect of the infinitive must always 
be used : as, " He ought to have done it. ;; When we use this verb, this is the 
only vvay to distinguish the past from the present. 

It is proper further to observe, that verbs in the infinitive mood in the fol- 
lowing - form — to write, to be writing, and to be written — always denote some- 
thing contemporary with the time of the governing verb, or subsequent to it ; 
but. when verbs of that mood are expressed as follows — to have been writing t 
to have written, and to have been vjritten — -they always denote something an- 
tecedent to the time of the governing verb. This remark is thought to be of 
importance ; for, if duly attended to, it will, in most cases, be sufficient to 
direct us in the relative application of these tenses. 

The following sentence is properly and analogically expressed : " I found 
him better than I expected to find him. 77 u Expected to have found him, is 
irreconcilable alike to grammar and to sense. Indeed, ail verbs expressive 
of hope, desire, intention, or command, must invariably be followed by the 
present, and not the perfect of the infinitive. Every person would perceive 
an error in the expression — " It is long since I commanded him to have done 
it y' yet " expected to have found/ 7 is no better. It is as clear that ihefnd- 
ing must be posterior to the expectation, as that the obedience must be poste- 
rior to the command. 

3. As the perfect participle and the past tense are sometimes different in 
their form, care must be taken that they be not indiscriminately used. It is 
frequently said, " He begun/' for u he began '" ie He done it/' for " he did 
it/ 7 " He run/ 7 for " he ran 5" " He drunk/ 7 for " he drank j' 7 the participle 
being here used instead of the past tense : and much more frequently the 
past tense instead of the participle ; as, " I had wrote/ 7 for " I had written / 7 
" I was chose/ 7 for u I was chosen ;' ; l< I have eat/ 7 for " I have eaten. ;; 
" His words were interwove with sighs 5" u were interwoven" li He would 
have spoke / 7 u spoken." " He hath bore witness to his faithful servants / 7 
" borne." u By this means he overrun his guide '" u overran." " The sun 
has rose 5" " risen." " His constitution has been greatly shook, but his mind 
is too strong to be shook by such causes j 77 tl shaken," in both places. " They 
were verses wrote on glass / 7 " written." il Philosophers have often mistook 
the source of true happiness ;" it ought to be " mistaken." 

The participle ending in ed is often improperly contracted by changing ed 
into t : as, " In good behavior he is not surpast by any pupil of the school '" 
"She was much dislrest 5" they ought to be, "surpassed " "distressed." 

[He would have went with us, had he been invited. — He return- 
ed the goods which he had stole, and made all the reparation in 
his power. — They have chose the part of honor and virtue. — His 
vices have weakened his mind, and broke his health. — He had mis- 
took his true interest, and found himself forsook by his former ad- 
herents. — The bread that has been eat is soon forgot. — No eonten- 

G 



116 SYNTAX. 

tions have arose amongst them since their reconciliation.— The 
cloth had no seam, but was wove throughout. — The French lan- 
guage is spoke at Paris. — He has not yet wore off the rough man- 
ners which he brought with him. — You who have forsook your 
friends, are entitled to no confidence. — They who have bore a part 
in the labor, shall share the rewards. — When the rules have been 
wantonly broke, there can be no plea for favor. — He writes as the 
best authors would have wrote, had they writ on the same subject. 
— He heapt up great riches, but past his time miserably. — He talkt 
and stampt with such vehemence, that he was suspected to be in- 
sane.] 

4. The inactive verb 13 varied like the active ; but, having in some de- 
gree the nature of the passive, it admits, in many instances, of the passive 
form, retaining still the inactive signification, chiefly in such verbs as signify 
some sort of motion, or change of place or condition : as, u I am come 5 I 
was gone ; I am grown j I was fallen/ 7 The following examples, however, 
appear to be erroneous, in giving the inactive verbs a passive form, instead 
of an active one : " The rule of our holy religion, from which we are infinitely 
swerved. 17 %i The whole obligation of that law and covenant was also ceased. 77 
" Whose number was now amounted to three hundred.' 7 " This mareschal, 
upon some discontent, was entered into a conspiracy against his master. 77 
" At the end of a campaign, when half the men are deserted or killed. 77 It 
should be, " have swerved, 77 " had ceased, 77 &c. 

[I always intended to have rewarded my son according to his 
merit. — It would, on reflection, have given me great satisfaction, 
to relieve him from that distressed situation. — It required so much 
care, that I thought 1 should have lost it before 1 reached home. — 
We have done no more than it was our duty to have done. — 1 pur- 
pose to go to London in a few months, and after I shall finish my 
business there, to proceed to America. — These prosecutions of 
William seem to be the most iniquitous measures pursued by the 
court during the time that the use of parliaments was suspended. 
— From the little conversation I had with him, he appeared to 
have been a man of letters.] 

5. We shall conclude our observations under this rule, by remarking, that, 
though it is often proper to use the perfect of the infinitive after the govern- 
ing verb, yet there are particular cases in which it would be better to give 
the expression a different form. Thus, instead of saying, " I wish to have 
written to him sooner, 77 " I then wished to have written to him sooner, 77 "He 
will one day wish to have written sooner ;' 7 it would be more perspicuous and 
forcible, as well as more agreeable to the practice of good writers, to say, 
" I wish that I had written to him sooner, 77 " I then wished that I had written 
to him sooner, 7 ' u He will one day wish that he had written sooner. 77 Should 
the justness of these strictures be admitted, there would still be numerous oc- 
casions for the use of the past infinitive : as we may peiceive by a few exam- 
ples : " It would ever afterwards have been a source of pleasure, to have 
found him wise and virtuous. 77 " To have deferred his repentance longer, 
would have disqualified him for repenting at all.' 7 " They will then see, that 
to have faithfully performed their duty, would have been their greatest con- 
solation. 77 

§75-. Adverbs, though they have no government or 
agreement, require an appropriate situation in the sentence : 






RULES. 117 

they are, for the most part, placed before adjectives, after 
verbs, and frequently between the auxiliary and the verb. 

A few instances of erroneous positions of adverbs may serve to illustrate 
this rule. i He must not expect to find study agreeable always 5' 'always 
agreeable.' ' We always find them ready when we want them j' ' We find 
them always ready,' &cj ' Dissertations on the prophecies which have re- 
markably been fulfilled ;' ' which have been remarkably. 1 ' Instead of look- 
ing contemptuously down on the crooked in mind or in body, we should look 
up thankfully to God, who hath made us better;' 'instead of looking down 
contemptuously,'' &c, li we should thankfully look up/ &c. ' If you are bles- 
sed naturally with a good memory, continually exercise it ;' ' naturally bles- 
sed, 1 &c, c exercise it continually. 1 

Sometimes the adverb is placed with propriety before the verb, or at some 
distance after it 5 sometimes between the two auxiliaries, and sometimes after 
them both 5 as in the following examples : ' Vice always creeps by degrees, 
and insensibly twines around us those concealed fetters, by which we are at 
last completely bound.' ' He encouraged the English barons to carry their 
opposition further; 1 ' They compelled him to declare that he would abjure 
the realm forever; 7 instead of ' to carry farthe?* their opposition 5' and to ab- 
jure forever the realm.' ' He has generally been reckoned an honest man ;' 
' The book may always be had at such a place ;' in preference to ' has been 
generally,' and ' may be always,' ' These rules will be clearly understood, 
after they have been diligently studied,' is preferable to \ These rules will 
clearly be understood, after they have diligently been studied.' 

From the preceding remarks and examples, it appears that no exact and 
determinate rule can be given for the placing of adverbs, on all occasions. 
The general rule may be of considerable use \ but the easy flow and perspi- 
cuity of the phrase, are the things which ought to be chiefly regarded. 

[He was pleasing not often, because he was vain; — William no- 
bly acted, though he was unsuccessful. — We may happily live, 
though our possessions are small. — From whence we may date like- 
wise the period of this event. — It cannot be impertinent or ridicu- 
lous, therefore, to remonstrate. — He offered an apology, which not 
being admitted, he became submissive. — These things should be 
never separated. — Unless he have more government of himself, he 
will be always discontented. — Not only he found her employed, but 
pleased and tranquil also. — We always should prefer our duty to 
our pleasure. — It is impossible continually to be at work. — The 
heavenly bodies are in motion perpetually. — Having- not known, 
or having not considered, the measures proposed, he failed of suc- 
cess.] 

1, The adverb there is often used as an expletive, or as a word that adds 
nothing to the sense ; in which case it precedes the verb and the nominative 
noun : as, ' There is a person at the door 5' ' There are some thieves in the 
house ;' which would be as well, or better, expressed by saying, ' A person 
is at the door ;' ' Some thieves are in the house.' Sometimes, it is made use 
of to give a small degree of emphasis to the sentence: as, ' There was a 
man sent from God, whose name was John/ When it is applied in its strict 
sense, it principally follows the verb and the nominative case : as, * The man 
Stands there. 1 

2. The adverb never generally precedes the verb : as, ' I never was there ;' 
' He never conies at a proper time.' When an auxiliary is used, it is placed 
indifferently, either before or after this adverb : as, ' He was never seen (or 



118 SYNTAX. 

never was seen) to laugh from that time.' Never see in 3 to be improperly 
used in the following passages : ' Ask me never so much dowry and gift.' 
'If I make my hands never so clean/ ' Charm he never so wisely/ The 
word ever would be more suitable to the sense* 

3. In imitation of the French idiom, the adverb of place where is often used 
instead of the pronoun relative and a preposition. ' They framed a protesta- 
tion, where they repeated all their former claims $' i. e. 'in which they re- 
peated*' ' The king was still determined to run forwards, in the same course 
where he was already, by his precipitate career, too fatally advanced / i. e. 
* in which he was.' But it would be better to avoid this mode of expression. 

The adverbs hence, thence, and whence, imply a preposition ; for they sig- 
nify 'from this place/ * from that place/ from what place/ It seems, there- 
fore, strictly speaking, to be improper to join a preposition with them, because 
it is superfluous : as, ' This is the leviathan, from whence the wits of our age 
are said to borrow their weapons ;' ■ An ancient author prophecies from 
hence. 7 But the origin of these words is little attended to, and the preposi- 
i\or\ from so often used in construction with them, that the omission of it, in 
many cases, would seem stiff, and be disagreeable. 

The adverbs here, there, where, are often improperly applied to verbs sig- 
nifying motion, instead of the adverbs hither, thither, whither : as, ' He came 
here hastily/ 'They rode there with speed.' They should be, 'He came 
hither ;' 'They rode thither/ &c. 

[ He drew up a petition where he too freely represented his own 
merits. — His follies had reduced him to a situation tchere he had 
much to fear, and nothing to hope. — it is reported that the prince 
will come here to-morrow. — George is active ; he walked there in 
less than an hour. — Where are you all going in such haste ? — 
Whither have they been since they left the city ?] 

4. We have some examples of adverbs being used for substantives : ' In 
1687, he erected it into a community of regulars, since when it has begun to 
increase in those countries as a religious order / i.e. 'since which time.'' 
' A little while, and I shall not see you ;' i.e. 'a short time. 1 * It is worth 
their while ;' i. e. ' it deserves their time and pains.' But this use of the word 
suits a familiar rather than a grave style. The same may be said of the phrase, 
' To do a thing anyhow ;' i. e. ' in any manner :' or, ' somehovi f i. e. ' in 
any manner.' ' Somehow, worthy as these people are, they are under the 
influence of prejudice.' 

§76. Two negatives, in the same simple sentence, are 
equivalent to an affirmative. 

It is better to express an affirmation by a regular affirmative, than b}' two 
separate negatives 5 but when one of the negatives is joined to another word, 
the two negatives form a pleasing and delicate variety of expression. 

Some writers have improperly employed two negatives instead of one 3 as 
in the following instances : ' I never did repent of doing good, nor shall not 
now / ' nor shall I novj.' ' Never no imitator grew up to his author / ' never 
did anij, 1 &c. ' I cannot by no means allow him what his argument must 
prove / ' I cannot by any means/ &c. ; or, ' lean by no means.'' ' Nor Jet 
no comforter approach me / ' nor let any comforter/ &c. ' Nor is danger 
ever apprehended in such a government, no more than we commonly appre- 
hend danger from thunder or earthquakes / it should be, ' any more. 1 ' Ari- 
osto, Tasso, Galileo, no more than Raphael, were not born in republics ;' 
' Neither Ariosto, Tasso, nor Galileo, any more than Raphael, was born in a 
republic' 



RULES. 119 

{Neither riches nor honors, nor wo such perishing goods, can sat- 
isfy the desires of an immortal spirit. — Be honest, nor take no shape 
nor semblance of disguise. — We need not, nor do not, confine his 
operations to narrow limits. — I am resolved not to comply with the 
proposal, neither at present, nor at any other time. — There cannot 
be nothing more insignificant than vanity. — Nothing never affected 
her so much, as this misconduct of her child. — Do not interrupt me 
yourselves, nor let no one disturb my retirement. — These people 
do not judge wisely, nor take no proper measure to effect their pur- 
pose. — The measure is so exceptionable, that we. cannot by no 
means permit it. — 1 have received no information on the subjeet, 
neither from him nor his friend. — Precept nor discipline is not so 
forcible as example. — The king nor the queen was not at all deceived 
in the business.] * 

§77. Prepositions show the relation between words, and 
must be followed by the objective case. 

The following are examples of the nominative case being used instead of 
the objective : * Who servest thou under V l Who do you speak to V ' We 
are still much at a loss who civil power belongs to.' ' Who dost thou ask 
for V ' Associate not with those who none can speak well of.' In all these 
places, it ought to be 'whom. 7 

[We are all accountable creatures, each for hisself. — They wil- 
lingly, and of theirselves, endeavored to make up the difference. — 
He laid the suspicion upon somebody, I know not who, in the com- 
pany. — I hope it is not I who he is displeased with. — To poor we, 
there is not much hope remaining. — Does that boy know who he 
speaks to? Who does he offer such language to? — It was not he 
that they were so angry with. — What concord can subsist between 
those who commit crimes, and they who abhor them ? — The person 
who 1 traveled with, has sold the horse which he rode on during 
our journey.] 

1. The preposition is often separated from the relative which it governs : 
as, l Whom wilt thou give it to V instead of, i To whom wilt thou give it V* 
1 He is an author whom I am much delighted with ; ? < The world is too polite 
to shock authors with a truth, which generally their booksellers are the first 
that inform them of. ? This is an idiom to which our language is strongly in- 
clined j it prevails in common conversation, and is suited very w r ell to the 
familiar style in writing: but the placing of the preposition before the relative 
is more graceful, as well as more perspicuous, and agre%s much better with 
the solemn and elevated style. 

2. Home writers separate the preposition from its noun, m order to con- 
nect different prepositions with the same noun : as, * To suppose the zodiac 
and planets to be efficient of, and antecedent to, themselves/ This, whether 
in the familiar or the solemn style, is always inelegant, and should generally 
be avoided. In forms of law, and the like, where fulness and exactness of 
expression must take the place of every other consideration, it may be ad- 
mitted. 

3. Different relations, and different senses, must be expressed by different 
prepositions, though in conjunction with the same verb or adjective. Thus 
we say, ' To converse with a person, upon a subject, in a house/ &c. We 
also say, ' We are disappointed of a thing/ when we cannot get it, ' and dis- 

G2 



120 SYNTAX. 

appointed in it/ when we have it, and find it does not answer our expecta- 
tions. But two different prepositions must be improper in the same con- 
struction, and in the same sentence • as, ' To combat between thirty French 
against twenty English. 7 

In some cases, it is difficult to say, to which of two prepositions the prefer- 
ence is to be given, as both are used promiscously, and custom has not de- 
cided in favor of either of them. We say, ' Expert at/ and ' Expert in a 
thing. 7 ' Expert at finding a remedy for his mistakes ;' ' Expert in deception/ 

When prepositions; are subjoined to nouns, they are generally the some that 
are subjoined to the verbs from which the nouns are derived : as, ' A compli- 
ance with/ l to comply with. 1 ' A disposition to tyranny/ ' disposed to 
tyrannized 

4. As an accurate and appropriate use of the preposition is of great impor- 
tance, we shall select a considerable number of examples of impropriety in 
the application of this part of speech.* 

1st. With respect to the preposition of, l He is resolved of going to the 
Persian court / l on going/ &c. ' He was totally dependent of the Papal 
crown }' ' on the Papal/ &c. ' To call of a person/ and ' to wait of him j 7 
• on a person/ &c ' He was eager of recommending it to his fellow citi- 
zens / I in recommending/ &c. Of is sometimes omitted, and sometimes 
inserted, after worthy: as, ' It is worthy observation/ or 3 ' of observation/ 
But it would have been better omitted in the following sentences : ' The em- 
ulation, who should serve their country best, no longer subsists among them, 
but of who should obtain the most lucrative command/ ' The rain hath been 
falling of a. long time j 7 * falling a long time. 7 l It is situation chiefly which 
decides of the fortune and character of men / ' decides the fortune/ or, 
c concerning the fortune. 7 ' He found the greatest difficulty of writing / l in 
writing. 7 i It might have given me a greater taste of its antiquities. 7 A taste 
of a. thing implies actual enjoyment of it 5 but a iasie for it, implies only a 
capacity for enjoyment. * This had a much greater share of inciting him, 
than any regard after his father's commands j 7 * share in inciting/ and l re- 
gard to his father's, 7 &c. 

2d. With respect to the preposition to, for, and at. l You have bestowed 
your favors to the most deserving persons / ' upon the most deserving/ &c. 
' He accused the ministers for betraying the Dutch / '0/having betrayed/ &c. 
( His abhorrence to that superstitious figure / ' of that/ &c. ' A great 
change to the better/ l for the better. 7 'Your prejudice to my cause / 
f against. 1 * The English were very different people then, to what they are at 
present / 'from what/ &c. l In compliance to the declaration ',' ' with, 1 &c. 
' It is more than they thought for 5' ( thought of. 1 ' There is no need for it / 
f of it. 1 For is superfluous in the phrase, l More than he knows for. 1 ' No 
discouragement for the authors to proceed : 7 'to the authors/ &c. * It was 
perfectly in compliance to some persons / ' with. 1 ' The wisest princes need 
not think it any diminution to their greatness, or derogation to their sufficiency, 
to rely upon counsel j 7 l diminution of, 1 and ' derogationyrom. 7 

The preposition to is made use of before nouns of place, when they follow 
verbs and participles of motion : as, ' I went to London j 7 ' I am going to 
town. 7 But the preposition at is generally used after the inactive verb to be ; 
as, ' I have been at London 5' 1 1 was at the place appointed / ' I shall be at 
Paris. 7 We likewise say, ' He touched, arrived at any place. 7 The prepo- 
sition in is set before countries, cities, and large towns: as, ' He lives in 
France, in London, or in Birmingham. 7 But before villages, single houses, 
and cities which are in different countries, at is used : as, * He lives at Hack- 
ney */ '■ He resides at Montpelier. 7 

3d. With respect to the prepositions with and upon. ' Reconciling himself 
with the king. 7 ' Those things which have the greatest resemblance with 
each other, frequently differ the most. 7 ' That such rejection should be con- 



RULES. 121 

sonant with our common nature; 7 \ Conformable with/ &c. ' The history of 
Peter is agreeable with the sacred texts. 7 In all the above instances, it should 
be ' to,' instead of ' with. 1 ' It is a use that, perhaps, I should not have thought 
on j' 'thought of ' A greater quantity may be taken from the heap, with- 
out making any sensible alteration upon it ;' ' in\i.' 'Intrusted to persons 
on whom the parliament could confide ;' ' in whom.' ' He was made much 
onatArgos; 7 ' much of 'If the policy can prevail upon force ;' l over 
force. 7 ' I do likewise dissent with the examiner ',' 'from 7 

4th. With respect to the prepositions in, from, <jj»c. ' They should be in- 
formed in some parts of his character ;' ' about,' or, I concerning.' ' Upon 
such occasions as fell into their cognizance ;' * under.' ' That variety of fac- 
tions into which we are still engaged; 7 ' in which. 7 ' To restore myself into 
the favor; 7 'to the favor. 7 ' Could he have profited from his repeated ex- 
periences; 7 'by.' From seems to be superfluous after forbear : as, ' He 
could not forbear from appointing the pope, 7 &c ' A strict observance after 
times and fashions ; 7 ' of times. 7 ' The character which we may now value 
ourselves by drawing;' ' upon drawing. 7 ' Neither of them shall make me 
swerve out of the path ; 7 'from the path. 7 ' Ye blind guides, which strain at 
a gnat, and smallow a camel f it ought to be, ' which strain out a gnat, or, 
take a gnat out of the liquor by straining it. 7 The impropriety of the prepo- 
sition has wholly destroyed the meauing of the phrase. 

The preposition among generally implies a number of things. It cannot 
be properly used in conjunction with the word every, which is in the singular 
number : as, ' Which is found among every species of liberty ; 7 The opinion 
seems to gain ground among every body. 7 

It is a matter of indifference, with respect to the pronoun one another, 
whether the preposition of be placed between the two parts of it, or before 
them both. We may say, ' They were jealous of one another ; 7 or, ' They 
were jealous one of another ; 7 but perhaps the former is best. 7 

[We can confide on none but the truly good. — I have no occasion 
of his services. — Many have profited from good advice. — This is a 
principle in unison to our nature. — We should entertain no 
prejudices to simple and rustic persons. — They are at present re- 
solved of doing their duty. — That boy is known under the name of 
the idler. — Though conformable with custom, it is not warrantable. 
— This remark is founded in truth. — His parents think on him and 
his improvements, with pleasure and hope. — His excuse was ad- 
mitted of by his master. — More than a thousand of men were de- 
stroyed. — He lives opposite the royal exchange. — Their house is 
situated to the north east side of the road. — He was accused with 
having acted unfairly. — She has an abhorrence to all deceitful con- 
duct. — The politeness of the world has the same resemblance with 
benevolence, that the shadow has with its substance. — When we 
have had a true taste for the pleasures of virtue, we can have no 
relish for those of vice. — Civility makes its way among every kind 
of persons.] 

§78. Conjunctions connect words and sentences, and 
sometimes sections or chapters. 

1. Conjunctions frequently connect verbs of the same mood and tense, and 
nouns and pronouns of the same case. A few examples of inaccuracy re- 
specting this rule may further display its utility. ' If he prefer a virtuous life, 
and is sincere in his profession, he will succeed '■>' ' if he prefers,' ' To deride 
the miseries of the unhappy, is inhuman ; and wanting compassion towards 

G 3 



122 SYNTAX. 

them, is'unchristian 3' ' and to want compassion .' ' The parliament address- 
ed the king - , and has been prorogued the same day ; 7 ' and was prorogued. 7 
' His wealth and him bid aclieu to each other ; 7 ' and he.' ' He entreated us, 
my comrade and I, to live harmoniously;' 'comrade and me.' ' My sister 
and her were on good terms •* * and she/ ' We often overlook the blessings 
which are in our possession, and are searching after those which are out of 
our reach ;' it ought to be, ' and search after. 7 

[Professing regard, and to act differently, discover a base mind. 
— Did he not tell me his fault, and entreated me to forgive him ? — 
My brother and him are tolerable grammarians. — If he understand 
the subject, and attends to it industriously, he can scarcely fail of 
success. — You and us enjoy many privileges. — She and him are 
very unhappily connected.] 

2. Conjunctions that are of a positive or absolute nature are followed by 
the indicative mood: as, ' He is healthy, because he is temperate. 7 'James 
performed the work, for he was comminded so to do, 7 But when the con- 
junction implies contingency or doubt, it is followed by the subjunctive 
mood : as, * 1/1 was to write, he would not regard it; 7 i If thou art afflicted, 
repine not ;' c Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him ;' ' He cannot be 
clean, unlesshe ivashes himself;' ' A man can receive nothing, except libe giv- 
en him from heaven ;' ' Whether it were I or they, so we preach. 7 

3. Almost all the irregularities in the construction of our language, have 
arisen from the ellipsis of some words which were originally inserted in the 
sentence, and made it regular; and it is probable, that this has generally been 
the case with respect to the subjunctive form of verbs, so called, now in use. 
This will appear from the following examples : ' We shall overtake him, 
though he run; 7 that is, ' though he should run. Unless he act prudently, he 
will not accomplish his purpose ; 7 that is, ' unless he shall act prudently.' ' If 
he succeed, and obtain his end, he will not be the happier for it ;' that is, ' If 
he should succeed, and should obtain his end.' From these examples, it ap- 
pears pretty certain that there is no sufficient authority for this subjunctive 
form of the verb, contended for, so strenuously by some grammarians ; inas- 
much as there is always an ellipsis of an auxiliary, which may be readily 
supplied. We may observe, therefore, in the form of a rule, that, The words 
if, though, unless, lest, whether, and except, may be followed by verbs in the 
future tense, without the usual signs, shall, will, or should. 

4. Some conjunctions have corresponding conjunctions belonging to them, 
either expressed or understood : as, 

1st. Though — yet, nevertheless : as, c Though he was rich, yet for our sakes 
he became poor;' * Though powerful, he was meek.' 

2d. Whether — or : as, * Whether he will go or not, I cannot tell. 7 

3d. Either — or : as, 'I will either send it, or bring it myself. 7 

4th. Neither — nor : as, ? Neither he nor I am able to compass it. 7 

5th. As — as ; expressing a comparison of equality: as, ' She is as amiable 
as her sister ; and as much respected. 7 

6th. As — so; expressing a comparison of equality: as, ' As the stars, so 
shall thy seed be.' 

7th. As — so; expressing a comparison of quality : as * As the one dieth, 
so dieth the other ;' c As he reads, they read.' 

8th. So — as ; with a verb expressing a comparison of quality : as, ' To 
see thy glory, so as I have seen thee in the sanctuary. 7 

9th. So — as; with a negative and an adjective expressing a comparison 
of quantity : as, ' Pompey was not so great a general as Caesar, nor so great 
a man, 7 

10th. So — that; expressing a consequence : as, * He was so fatigued^ that 
he could scarcely move. 7 



RULES. 123 

The conjunctions or and nor may often be used, with nearly equal propri- 
ety. ' The king - , whose character was not sufficiently vigorous nor decisive, 
assented to the measure.' In this sentence, or would, perhaps, have been 
better ; but in general, nor seems to repeat the negation in the former part of 
the sentence, and, therefore, gives more emphasis to the expression. 

Conjunctions are often improperly used, both singly and in pairs. The 
following are examples of this impropriety: ' The relations are so uncertain, 
as that they require a great deal of examination 5' it should be, ' that they re- 
quire, 7 &c. ' There was no man so sanguine, who did not apprehend some 
ill consequences ;' it ought to be, l so sanguine as not to apprehend/ &c. 5 
or, ' no man, how sanguine soever, who did not/ &c. ' To trust in him is 
no more but to acknowledge his power/ ' This is no other but the gate of 
paradise/ In both these instances, but should be than. ' We should suffi- 
ciently weigh the objects of our hope ; whether they are such as we may 
reasonably expect from them what (hey propose/ &c; it ought to be, ' that 
we may reasonably/ &c. ' The duke had not behaved with that loyally as 
he ought to have done / ' with v)hich he ought.' ' In the order as they lie in 
the preface / it should be, ' in order as they lie / or, ' in the order in which 
they lie.' ' Such sharp replies that cost him his life / l as cost/ &c. ' If he 
were truly that scarecrow, as he is now commonly painted / ( such a scare- 
crow.' &c. ' I wish I could do that justice to his memory, to oblige the 
painters/ &c. ; ' do such justice as to oblige/ &c. 

[Be ready to succor such persons who need thy assistance. — The 
matter was no sooner proposed but he privately withdrew to con- 
sider it. — He has too much sense and prudence than to become a 
dupe to such artifices. — It is not sufficient that our conduct, as far 
as it respects others, appears to be unexceptionable. — The resolu- 
tion was not the less fixed, that the secret was yet communicated 
to very few. — He opposed the most remarkable corruptions of the 
church of Rome, so as that his doctrines were embraced by great 
numbers. -r-He gained nothing further by his speech, but only to be 
commended for his eloquence. — He. has little more of the scholar 
besides his name. — He has little of the scholar than his name. — They 
had no sooner risen, but they applied themselves to their studies. — 
From no other institution, besides the admirable one of juries, 
could so great a benefit be expected. — Those savage people seemed 
to have no other element but war. — Such men that act treacher- 
ously ought to be avoided.] 

§79. When the qualities of different things are com- 
pared, the latter noun or pronoun is not governed by the 
conjunction than, or as, but is the subject or object of some 
verb, or preposition, expressed or understood: as, 'Thou 
art wiser than I ;' that is, ' than I am.' ' They loved him 
more than me ;' that is, ■ more than they loved me.* ' The 
sentiment is well expressed by Plato, but much better by 
Solomon than him ;' that is, ! than by him.' 

The propriety or impropriety of many phrases, in the preceding as well as in 
some other forms, may be discovered, by supplying the words that are not ex- 
pressed ; which will be evident from the following instances of erroneous con- 
struction : ' He can read better than me.' « He is as sood as her.' * Whether I 
he present or no.' ■ Who did this? Me.' By supplyfng the words understood, 
in each of these phrases, their impropriety and governing rule will appear : as, 



124 SYNTAX. 

1 better than 1 can read ;' \ as good as she is :' \ present or not present ;' * 1 did it. ? 
By not attending to this rule, many errors have been committed ; a number of 
which is subjoined, as a further caution and direction to the learner : c Thou art 
a much greater loser than me by his death.' < She suffers hourly more than me.' 
* We contributed a third more than the Dutch, who were obliged to the same pro- 
portion more than us.' 'King Charles, and, more than him, the duke and the 
popish faction, were at liberty to form new schemes.' ' The drift of all his ser- 
mons was, to prepare the Jews for the reception of a prophet mightier than him, 
and whose shoes he was not worthy to bear.' ' It was the work of so eminent an 
author as him to whom it was first imputed.' ' A stone is heavy, and the sand 
weighty ; but a fool's wrath is heavier than them both.' 'If the king give us 
leave, we may perform the office as well as them that do.' In these passages, it 
ought to be, * 1, he, we, they J respectively. 

Whom, the objective of who, is used by some writers immediately after than t 
as, ' Beelzebub, than whom, Satan excepted, none higher sat ;' 'Alfred, than 
whom, a greater king never reigned,' &c. But this use of the word is anomalous 
in our language, and opposed to all the true principles of its foundation ; and 
though it may be consonant with Latin rules or idioms, is in the highest degree 
objectionable in English, cannot be parsed, and should be entirely discarded. 

§80. To avoid disagreeable repetitions, and to express 
our ideas in a few words, an ellipsis, or omission of some 
words, is frequently admitted. Instead of saying, * He was 
a learned man, he was a wise man, and he was a good 
man/ we make use of the ellipsis, and say, ' He was a 
learned, wise and good man.' 

When the omission of words would obscure the sentence, 
weaken its force, or be attended with impropriety, they 
must be expressed. In the sentence, ' We are apt to love 
who love us/ the word them should be suppled. ' A beau- 
tiful field and trees/ is not proper language \ it should be, 
' Beautiful fields and trees/ or, \ Beautiful fields and fine 
trees." 

The force of these rules will be best exemplified by considering the parts of 
speech separately and in their order. Almost all compound sentences are more 
or less elliptical, as the student has had occasion before this to observe. 

1. The noun is frequently omitted in the following manner: 'The laws of 
God and man ;' that is, ' The laws of God and the laws of man.' In some very 
emphatical expressions, the ellipsis should not be used : as, ' Christ, the power of 
God, and the wisdom of God ;' which is more emphatical than ' Christ the power 
and wisdom of God.' 

[These counsels were the dictates of virtue, and the dictates of 
true honor. — Avarice and cunning may acquire an estate, but ava- 
rice and cunning cannot gain friends. — A taste for useful know- 
ledge will provide for us a great and noble entertainment, when 
others leave us. — Without firmness, nothing that is great can be 
undertaken ; that is difficult or hazardous, can be accomplished. — 
The anxious man is the votary of riches; the negligent, of pleas- 
ure.] 

2. The ellipsis of the adjective is used in the following manner : ■ A delightful 
garden and orchard 3' that is, * A delightful garden and a delightful orchard.' 'A 



RULES. 125 

little man and woman ;' that is, * A little man and a little woman.* In such ellip- 
tical expressions as these, the adjective ought to have exactly the same significa- 
tion, and to be quite as proper, when joined to the latter substantive as to the 
former ; otherwise the ellipsis should not be admitted. 

Sometimes the ellipsis is improperly applied to nouns of different numbers: as, 
* A magnificent house and gardens. 5 In this ease it is better to use another ad- 
jective : as, ' A magnificent house, and fine gardens.' 

[His crimes had brought him into extreme distress and extreme 
perplexity. — He has an affectionate brother, and an affectionate 
sister, and they live in great harmony. — We must guard against 
too great severity, and facility of manners. — That species of com- 
merce will produce great gain or loss. — Many days, and even 
weeks, pass away unimproved. — This wonderful action struck the 
beholders with exceeding astonishment. — The people of this coun- 
try possess a healthy climate and soil. — They enjoy also a free con- 
stitution and laws.] 

3. The following is the ellipsis of the pronoun : 1 1 love and fear him j' that is 
1 1 love him, and I fear him.' * My honse and lands j» that is, * My house, and 
my lands. ' In these instances, the ellipsis may take place with propriety j but 
if we would be more express and emphatical, it must not be used: as, 'His 
friends and his foes ;' ; My sons and my daughters.' 

In some of the common forms of speech, the relative pronoun is usually omit- 
ted : as, * This is the man they love,' instead of ' This is the man whom they 
love.' * These are the goods they bought,' for 'These are the goods which they 
bought.' 

In complex sentences, it is much better to have the relative pronoun expres- 
sed : as it is more proper to say, ' The posture in which I lay,' than l In the pos- 
ture I lay ;' s The horse on which I rode, fell down,' than * The horse I rode, fell 
down.' 

The antecedent and the relative connect the parts of a sentence together ; and, 
to prevent obscurity and confusion, they should answer to each other with great 
exactness. ' We speak that we do know, and testify that we have seen.' Here 
the ellipsis is manifestly improper, and ought to be supplied: as, ' We speak 
that which we do know, and testify that which we have seen.' 

[His reputation and his estate were both lost by gaming. — This 
intelligence not only excited our hopes, but fears too. — His con- 
duct is not scandalous ; and that is the best can be said of it. — This 
was the person whom calumny had greatly abused, and sustained 
the injustice with singular patience. — He discovered some quali- 
ties in the youth of a disagreeable nature, and to him were wholly 
unaccountable. — The captain had several men died in his ship, of 
the scurvy. — He is not only sensible and learned, but is religious 
too. — The Chinese language contains an immense number of 
words ; and who would learn them must possess a great memory. 
— By presumption and by vanity, we provoke enmity, and we in- 
cur contempt. — In the circumstances I was at that time, my trou- 
bles pressed heavily upon me. — He had destroyed his constitution, 
by the very same errors that so many have been destroyed.] 

4. The ellipsis of the verb is used in the following instances: ' The man was 
old and crafty j 1 that is, ' The man was old, and the man was crafty.' ' She was 
young, and beautiful, and good;' that is, 'She was young, she was beautiful, 
and she was good.' • Thou art poor, and wretched, and miserable, and blind, 
and naked.' If we would fill up the ellipsis in the last sentence, thou art ought 
to be repeated before each of the adjectives. 

If f in such enumeration, we choose to point out one property above the rest, 
that property must be placed last, and the ellipsis supplied : as, * She is young and 
beautiful, and she is good.' 



126 SYNTAX. 

*I went to see and hear him ;' that is, * I went to see, and I went to hear him. 5 
In this instance, there is not only an ellipsis of the governing verb, / went, but 
likewise of the sign of the infinitive mood, which is governed by it. 

Do, did, have, had, shall, will, may, might, and the rest of the auxiliaries of the 
compound tenses, are frequently used alone, to spare the repetition of the verb : 
as, ' He regards his word, but you do not ;' that is, ' do not regard it.' ' We suc- 
ceeded, but they did not;' that is, ' did not succeed.' < I have learned my task, 
but you have not j» ' have not learned.' ' They must, and they shall be punish- 
ed J' that is, ' they must be punished.' 

[He is temperate, he is disinterested, he is benevolent: he is an 
ornament to his family, and a credit to his profession. — Genuine 
virtue supposes our benevolence to be strengthened, and to be con- 
firmed by principle. — The sacrifices of virtue will not only be re- 
warded hereafter, but recompensed even in this life. — All those 
possessed of any office, resigned their former commission. — Per- 
severance in laudable pursuits will reward all our toils, and will 
produce effects beyond our calculation. — It is happy for us, when 
we can calmly and deliberately look back on the past, and can qui- 
etly anticipate the future. — If young persons were determined to 
conduct themselves by the rules of virtue, not only would they 
escape innumerable dangers, but command respect from the licen- 
tious themselves. — Charles was a man of learning, knowledge, and 
benevolence, and, what is still more, a true Christian.] 

5. The ellipsis of the adverb is used in the following manner: ' He spoke and 
acted wisely ;' that is, ' He spoke wisely, and he acted wisely.' ' Thrice I went 
and offered my service;' that is, ' Thrice I went, and thrice I offered my ser- 
vice.' 

[The temper of him who is always in the bustle of the world, 
will be often ruffled, and be often disturbed. — We often commend 
imprudently, as well as censure imprudently. — How a seed grows 
up into a tree, and the mind acts upon the body, are mysteries 
which we cannot explain. — Verily there is a reward for the right- 
eous ! there is a God that judgeth in the earth. 

6. The ellipsis of the preposition, as well as of the verb, is seen in the follow- 
ing instances : ' He went into the abbeys, halls, and public buildings ;' that is, 
1 He went into the abbeys, he went into the halls, and he went into the public 
buildings.' 'He also went through all the streets and lanes of the city ;' that is, 
1 through all the streets, and through all the lanes,' &c. ' He spoke to every man 
and woman there ;' that is, ' to every man, and to every woman.' ' This day, 
next month, last year ;' that is, 'On this day, in the next month, in the last 
year.' * The Lord do that which seemeth him godd ;' that is, ' which seemeth to 
him.' 

[Changes are almost continually taking place, in men and in 
manners, in opinions and in customs, in private fortunes and pub- 
lic conduct. — Averse either to contradict or blame, the too com- 
plaisant man goes along with the manners that prevail. — By this 
habitual indelicacy, the virgins smiled at what they blushed be- 
fore, — They are now reconciled to what they could not formerly 
be prompted, by any considerations. — Censure is the tax which a 
man pays the public for being eminent. — Reflect on the state of 
human life, and the society of men as mixed with good and with 
evil.] 



RULES. 127 

7. The ellipsis of the conjunction is as follows : * They confess the power, wis- 
dom, goodness, and love ef their Creator f that is, ( the power, and wisdom, and 
goodness, and love of, 5 &c. « Though I love him, I do not flatter him ;' that is, 

* Though f love him, yet I do not flatter him.' 

[In all stations and conditions, the important relations take 
place, of masters and servants, and husbands and wives, and par- 
ents and children, and brothers and friends, and citizens and sub- 
jects. — Destitute of principle, he regarded neither his family, nor 
his friends, nor his reputation. — Religious persons are often un- 
justly represented as persons of romantic character, visionary no- 
tions, unacquainted with the world, unfit to live in it. — No rank, 
station, dignity of birth, possessions, exempt men from contribu- 
ting their share to public utility.] 

8. The ellipsis of the interjection is not very common ; though it sometimes 
occurs : as, ' Oh, pity and shame !' that is, ' Oh, pity ! oh, shame I' 

[Oh, my father ! Oh, my friend ! how great has been my ingrat- 
itude ! — Oh, piety ! virtue ! how insensible have 1 been to your 
charms !] 

9. As the ellipsis occurs in almost every sentence in the English language, nu- 
merous examples of it might be given ; but only a few more can be admitted here. 

In the following instance, there is a very considerable one : ' He will often ar- 
gue, that if this part of our trade were well cultivated, we should gain from one 
nation ; and if another, from another ;' that is, ' He will often argue, that if this 
part of our trade were well cultivated, we should gain from one nation ; and if 
another part of our trade were well cultivated, we should gain from another na- 
tion.' 

The following instances, though short, contain much of the ellipsis: c Wo is 
me ;' i. e. ' we is to me.' * To let blood ;' i. e. * to let out blood.' * To let down ;' 
i. e. ' to let it fall or slide down.' • To walk a mile ;' i. e. " to walk through the 
space of a mile.' c To sleep all night ;' i. e. ' to sleep through all the night.' ' To 
go a fishing j' ' To go a hunting ;' i. e. " to go on a fishing voyage or business ;" 
' to go on a hunting party.' ' 1 dine at two o'clock ;' i. e. f at two of the clock.' 
' By sea, by land, on shore ;' i. e. " by the sea, by the land, on the shore." 

10. The examples that follow are produced to show the impropriety of ellipses 
in some particular cases. ' The land was always possessed, during pleasure, by 
those intrusted with the command ;' it should be, ' those persons intrusted ;' or, 

* those who were intrusted.' ' If he had read farther, he would have fouud sever- 
al of his objections might have been spared ;' that is, ' he would have found that 
several of his objections,' &c. 'There is nothing men are more deficient in, than 
knowing their own characters;' it ought to be, * nothing in which men,' and, 
'thani?i knowing.' ' I scarcely know any part of natural philosophy would 
yield more variety and use;' it should be, ' which would yield,' &x. ' In the 
temper of mind he was then ;' that is, ' in ichichhe then was.' f The little satis- 
faction and consistency to be found in most of the systems or divinity I have met 
with, made me betake myself to the sole reading of the Scriptures ;' it ought to 
be, ' which are to be found,' and, which I have met with.' * He desired they might 
go to the altar together, and jointly return their thanks to whom only they were 
due ;' that is, ■ to him to whom,' &c. 

§81. All the parts of a sentence should correspond to 
each other : a regular and dependent construction, through- 
out, should be carefully preserved. The following sentence 
is, therefore, inacurate : 'He was more beloved, but not so 
much admired, as Cinthio.' It should be, « He was more 
beloved than Cinthio, but not so much admired.' 

The first example under this rule presents a most irregular construction, viz : 

* He was more beloved <w Cinthio.' The words more and so muck are very im- 



128 SYNTAX. 

properly stated as having the same regimen: In correcting such sentences, it is 
not necessary to supply the latter ellipsis; because it cannot lead to any discord- 
ant or improper construction, and the supply would often be harsh or inelegant. 

As this rule comprehends all the preceding rules, it may, at the first view, ap- 
pear to be too general to be useful. But, by ranging under it a number of senten- 
ces peculiarly constructed, we shall perceive that it is calculated to ascertain the 
true grammatical construction of many modes of expression, which none of the 
particular rules can sufficiently explain. 

' This dedication may serve for almost any book, that has, is, or shall be pub- 
lished ;' it ought to be, « that has been, or shall be published.' * He was guided 
by interests always different, sometimes contrary to, those of the community ;' 
4 different from? or, ' always different from those of the community, and some- 
times contrary to them.' ' Will it be urged that these books are as old, or even 
older than tradition?' the words 'as old,' and 'older,' cannot have a common 
regimen ; it shouid be, ' as old as tradition, or even older.' * It sequires few tal- 
ents to which most men are not born, or at least may not acquire ;' ' or which, at 
least, they may not acquire.' * The court of chancery frequently mitigates and 
breaks the teeth of 'the common law.' In this construction, the first verb is said 
to ' mitigate the teeth of the common law,' which is an evident solecism. ' Miti- 
gates the common law, and breaks the teeth of it,' would have been grammatical. 

4 They presently grow into good humor and good language towards the crown ;' 
' grow into good language,' is very improper, * There is never wanting a set of 
evil instruments, who, either out of mad zeal, private hatred, or filthy lucre, are 
always ready,' &c. We say properly, * A man acts out of mad zeal,' or, * out of 
private hatred ;' but we cannot say, if we would speak English, ' he acts out of 
filthy lucre.' ' To double her kindness and carresses of me :' the word kindness 
requires to be followed by either to or for, and canuot be construed with the prep- 
osition of. * Never was a man so teased, or suffered half the uneasiness, as I have 
done this evening :' the first and third clauses, namely, * never was man so teased,' 
* as I have done this evening,' cannot be joined without an impropriety ; and to 
connect the second and third, the word that must be substituted for as ; ' or suffer- 
ed half the uneasiness that I have done £ or else, ' half so much uneasiness aa I 
have suffered.' 

The first part of the following sentence abounds with adverbs, and those such 
as are hardly consistent with one another: 'How much soever the reformation of 
this degenerate age is almost utterly to be despaired of, we may yet have a more 
comfortable prospect of future times.' The sentence would be more correct in 
the following form : Though the reformation of this degenerate age is nearly to be 
despaired of,' &c. 

* Oh ! shut not up my soul with the sinners, nor my life with the bloodthirsty ; 
in whose hands is wickedness, and their right hand is full of gifts.' As the pas- 
sage introduced by the copulative conjunction and, was not intended as a contin- 
uation of the principal and independent part of the sentence, but of the dependent 
part, the relative whose should have been used instead of the possessive their ; 
namely, ' and whose right hand is full of gifts.' 

1 Eyeihath not seen, neither have entered into the heart of man, the things which 
God hath prepared for them that love him.' There seems to be an impropriety in 
this instance, in which the same noun serves in a double capacity, peiforming at 
the same time the offices both of the nominative and objective cases. ' Neither 
hath it entered into the heart of man to conceive the things,' &c. would have been 
regular. 

c We have the power of retaining, altering, and compounding those images which 
we have once received, into all the varieties of picture and vision." It is very 
proper to say, * altering and compounding those images which we have once re- 
ceived, into all the varieties of picture and vision ;' but we cannot with propriety 
say, * retaining them into all the varieties;' and yet according to the manner in 
which the words are ranged, this construction is unavoidable : for retaining, al- 
tering, and compounding are participles, each of which equally refers to and gov- 
erns the subsequent noun, those images ; and that noun, again, is necessarily con- 
nected with the following preposition, into. The construction might easily have 
been rectified, by disjoining the participle retaining from the other two participles, 
in this way ; ' We have the power of retaining those images which we have once 
received, and of altering and compounding them into all the varieties of picture 
and vision ;' oi, perhaps, better thus : * We have the power of retaining, altering, 
and compounding those images which we have once received, and of forming 
them into all the varieties of picture and vision.' 



PUNCTUATION. 129 

[Several alterations and additions have been made to the work. — 
The first proposed was essentially different, and inferior to the sec- 
ond. — He is more bold and active, but not so wise and studious as 
his companion. — Thou hearest the sound of the wind, but thou canst 
not tell whence it cometh, and whither it goeth. — Neither has he, 
nor any other persons, suspected so much dissimulation. — The 
court of France or England was to have been the umpire. — The 
first project was to shorten discourse, by cutting pollysyllables in- 
to one. — I shall do all 1 can to pursuade others to take the same 
measures for their cure which I have. — The greatest masters of 
critical learning differ among one another. — By intercourse with 
w T ise and experienced persons, we may improve and rub off the rust 
of a private and retired education.— Sincerity is as valuable, and 
even more valuable, than knowledge ] 



CHAPTER III 



OF PUNCTUATION. 



§8£. Punctuation is the art of dividing a written com- 
position into sentences, or parts of sentences, by points or 
stops, for the purpose of marking the different pauses which 
the sense, and an accurate pronunciation require. 

The following are the principal points, or marks, for this 
purpose: the Comma [,], the Semicolon [;], the Colon [:], 
the Period [.], the Dash [ — ], the Point of Interrogation [?], 
and the Point of Exclamation [!]. 

The Comma represents the shortest pause ; the Semico- 
lon, a pause double that of the comma ; the Colon, double 
that of the semicolon ; and the Period double that of the 
colon. 

The precise quantity or duration of each pause, cannot 
be defined ; for it varies with the time of the whole. The 
same composition may be rehearsed in a quicker or slower 
time; but the proportion between the pauses should be ever 
invariable. 

Punctuation is a modern art. The ancients were not only entirely unacquaint- 
ed with it, but wrote without any distinction of members and periods, and even 
without distinction of words ; which custom continued til 1 360 years before Christ. 

* Though Punctuation has, in general, been assigned a place independent of the 
fundamental parts of Grammar, yet its close connection with the proper structure of 
sentences, and its necessity for a right understanding of the same, warrant it a 
situation under Syntax. Its importance certainly will allow it no humbler position. 



130 SYNTAX. 

How they could read their works written in this manner, it is not easy to conceive 
After the practice of joining words together Ifad ceased, notes of distinction were 
placed at the end of every word. This practice, with some variation, continued 
for considerable time. The first character, introduced for the purpose of marking 
pauses, was the point, or period, and this denoted pauses of different lengths, 
according as its position was at the bottom, middle, or top of the letter after which 
it followed. As it appears that the present usage of stops, did not take place, 
whilst manuscripts and monumental inscriptions, were the only methods of con- 
veying knowledge, we must conclude it was introduced with the art of printing. 
The introduction, however, was gradual : all the points did not appear at once. 
The colon, semicolon, and mark of admiration, were produced sometime after 
the others. The whole set, as they are now used, came to be established, only 
when learning and refinement had made considerable progress. 

The different degrees of connection between the several parts of sentences, and 
the different pauses in a just pronunciation, which express those degrees of con- 
nection according to their proper value, admit of great variety. When, therefore, 
we take into consideration the various kinds of style, the different manners of re- 
hearsal and modes of pronunciation, it will readily be perceived that the doctrine 
of Punctuation must be very imperfect. Few precise rules can be given, which 
hold, without exception, in all cases. Much must be left to the judgment and 
taste of the writer. It. remains, therefore, that we be content with the Rules of 
Punctuation, laid down with as much exactness as the nature of the subject will 
admit: such as may serve for general directions ; to be accommodated to differ- 
ent occasions 5 and to be supplied, when deficient, by the writer's judgment. 

OF THE COMMA. 

§83. The Comma usually separates those parts of a 
sentence, which, though very closely connected in sense 
and construction, require a pause between them. 

Rule I. With respect to a simple sentence, the several 
words of which it consists have so near a relation to each 
other, that in general, no points are requisite, except a full 
stop at the end of it: as, ' The fear of the Lord is the begin- 
ning of wisdom. 5 'Every part of matter swarms with living 
creatures.' 

A simple sentence, however, when it is a long one, and 
the nominative case is accompanied by inseparable ad- 
juncts, may admit of a pause immediately before the verb : 
as, ' The good taste of the present age, has not allowed us 
to neglect the cultivation of the English language :' * To be 
totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real defect in 
character.' 

In most cases, when a short pause will give distinctness to the ideas, a comma 
is well placed after an important word : as, * To mourn with measure, is folly ; 
not to mourn at all, insensibility.' N 

Rule II. When the connexion of the different parts of 
a simple sentence is interrupted by an imperfect phrase, a 
comma is usually introduced both at the beginning, and at 
the end of this phrase : as, ' I remember, with gratitude, 
his goodness to me :■ 'His work is, in many respects, very 
imperfect. It is, therefore, not much improved/ But when 



PUNCTUATION— COMMA. 131 

these interruptions are slight and unimportant, the comma 
is better omitted: as, 'Flattery is certainly pernicious ;' 

* There is surely a pleasure in beneficence.' 

In the generality of compound sentences, there is frequent occasion for commas . 
This will appear from the rules following. 

Rule III. When two or more nouns, adjectives, verbs, 
participles, or adverbs, occur in the same construction, they 
are separased by commas : as, * The husband, wife, and 
children, suffered extremely ,;' 'Plain, honest truth,, wants 
no artificial covering;' ' David was a brave, wise, and pious 
man ;' ■ Virtue supports in adversity, moderates in prosperi- 
ty ;' 'A man, fearing, serving, and loving his Creator ;' 

* Success generally depends on acting prudently, steadily, 
and vigorously, in what we undertake.' 

Exception. When two words, or terms, are closely con- 
nected by a conjunction, they are not parted by commas : 
as, ■ Virtue and vice form a contrast to each other;' ' True 
worth is modest and retired ;' J The study of natural history 
expands and elevates the mind ;' * By being admired and 
flattered we are often corrupted ;' ' Some men sin deliber- 
ately and presumptuously.' 

The conjunction disjunctive, in general, admits a comma immediately before 
it. ' We are virtuous, or else vicious.' 

Rule IV. When two words connected have several ad- 
juncts, a comma is inserted : as, ■ Honesty in his dealings, 
and attention to his business, procured him both esteem and 
wealth.' 

Rule V. When successive words are joined in pairs by 
conjunctions, they should be separated in pairs by the com- 
ma : as, 'Interest and ambition, honor and shame, friend- 
ship and enmity, gratitude and revenge, are the prime mov- 
ers of public transactions.' 

Rule VI. Adjectives and participles, when something 
defends on them, or when they have the import of a de- 
pendent clause, should with their adjuncts, be separated 
from the rest of the sentence by a comma ; as, ' The Gov- 
ernor, humane to a faulty pardoned the offender ;' * The 
king, approving the plan, put it in execution ;' 'All mankind 
compose one family, assembled under the eye of one com- 
mon Father.' 

G 4 



132 SYNTAX. 

When an adjective or participle immediately follows its noun, and is taken in 
a restrictive sense, the comma should not be inserted before it : as, * On the coast 
averse from entrance', ' A man renowned for repartee.' 

Rule VII. When a conjunction is separated by a phrase 
or sentence from the verb to which it belongs, such inter- 
vening phrase has usually a comma at each extremity : as, 
1 They set out early, and, before the close of the clay, ar- 
rived at the destined place/ 

Rule VIII. Expressions in a direct address, are sepa- 
ted from the rest of the sentence by commas : as, ■ My son, 
give me thy heart ;' * I am obliged to you, my Jriends, for 
your many favors.' 

Rule IX. The case absolute, and the infinitive mood 
absolute, are, with their adjuncts, separated by commas from 
the body of the sentence : as, ' His father dying , he suc- 
ceeded to the estate ;' • At length, their ministry performed, 
and race well run, they left the world in peace ;' * To con- 
fess the truth, I was much in fault.' 

Rule X. Nouns in apposition, that is, nouns added to 
other nouns in the same case, by way of explanation or il- 
lustration, when accompanied with adjuncts, are set off by 
commas : as, ■ Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, was emi- 
nent for his zeal and knowledge ;' * The butterfly, child of 
the summer, flutters in the sun.' 

But if such nouns are single, or only form a proper name, they are not divided : 
as, * Paul the apostle ; ? * The emperor Antoninus wrote an excellent book.' 

When, also, a pronoun is added to another word, for the sake of emphasis, it is 
not parted : as, * Ye men of Athens' — * I myself — * Thou minister of wrath.' 

Rule XI. Prepositions and their objects, when they in- 
terrupt the connection of a simple sentence, or when they 
do not closely follow the words on which they depend, are 
generally set off by the comma : as, s Fashion is, for the 
most part, nothing but the ostentation of riches ;' ' By read- 
ing, we add the experience of others to our own.' 

Rule XII. Interjections are sometimes distinguished 
by the comma : as, ' For, lo t I will call all the families of 
the kingdoms of the north.' 

Rule XIII. Simple members of sentences connected 
by comparatives, are for the most part distinguished by a 
comma : as, ' As the hart panteth after the water brooks, 
so doth my soul pant after thee;* 'Better is a dinner of 
herbs with love, than a stalled ox with hatred with it.' 



PUNCTUATION COMMA. 133 

If the members in comparative sentences are short, the comma Is, in general, 
better omitted : as, ' How much better is it to get wisdom than gold V * Mankind 
act cftener from caprice than reason.' 

Rule XIV. When words are placed in opposition to 
each other, or with some marked variety, they require to be 
distinguished by a comma : as, \ Good men, in this frail, 
imperfect state, are often found, not only in union with, 
but in opposition to, the views and conduct of one anoth- 
er/ 

4 Tho* deep, yet clear ; tho' gentle, yet not dull ; 
Strong, without rage ; without o'erfiowing, full.* 

Sometimes when the word with which the last preposition agrees, is single, it 
is better to omit the comma before it : as, i Many states were in alliance with t and 
under the protection of Rome.' 

The same rule and restrictions must be applied when two or more nouns refer 
to the same preposition : as, ' He was composed both under the threatening, and 
at the approach, of a cruel and lingering death ;' s He was not only the king, but 
the father of his people.' 

Rule XV. A remarkable expression, or a short observa- 
tion, somewhat in the manner of a quotation, may be prop- 
erly marked with a comma : as, ' It hurts a man's pride to 
say, I do not know ,-' ' Plutarch calls lying, the vice of slaves.' 

Rule XVI. Relative pronouns are connective words, 
and generally admit a comma before them : as, ' He preach- 
es sublimely, who lives a sober, righteous, and pious life ;' 
' There is no charm in the female sex, which can supply the 
place of virtue.' 

But when two members, or phrases, are closely connected by a relative, 
restraining the general notion of the antecedent to a particular sense, the com- 
ma should be omitted: as, 'Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must 
make/ ' A man who is of a detracting spirit, will misconstrue the most in- 
nocent words that can be put together,' In the latter example, the assertion 
is not of a man in general/ but of c a man who is of a detracting spirit ;' and 
therefore they should not be separated. 

The sixteenth rule applies equally to cases in which the relative is not ex- 
pressed, but understood : as, ' It was from piety, warm and unaffected, that 
his morals derived strength ; 7 ' This sentiment, habitual and strong, influenced 
his whole conduct.' In both these examples, the relative and verb which was, 
are understood. 

Rule XVII. A simple sentence, or member, contained 
within another, or following another, must be distinguished 
by the comma : as, ' To improve time, whilst we are blessed 
% with health, will smooth the bed of sickness.' * Very often, 
while we are complaining of the vanity, and the evils of hu- 
man life, we make that vanity, and we increase the evils.' 

II 



134 SYNTAX. 

If, however, the members succeeding each other, are very closely connect- 
ed, the comma is unnecessary : as, ' Revelation tells us how we may attain 
happiness.' 

Rule XVIII. When the verb to be is followed by a verb 
in the infinitive mood, which by transposition, might be 
made the nominative case to it, the former is generally sep- 
arated from the latter verb, by a comma: as, ' The most 
obvious remedy is, to withdraw from all associations with 
bad men.' 

When a verb in the infinitive mood, follows its governing phrase or sen- 
tence, it should generally have a comma at the end of such phrase or sen- 
tence : as, ' It ill becomes good and wise men, to oppose and degrade one 
another/ 

Rule XIX. When adjuncts or circumstances are of 
importance, and often when the natural order of them is in- 
verted, a comma is properly introduced : as, * Virtue must 
be formed and supported, not by unfrequent acts, but by 
daily and repeated exertions/ * Vices, like shadows, to- 
wards the evening of life, grow great and monstrous.' ' By 
threads innumerable, our interests are interwoven.' 

Rule XX. When a verb or other part of speech is un- 
derstood, a comma is often properly inserted : as, ' From 
law arises security ; from security, curiosity ; from curiosity, 
knowledge.' In this example, the verb ' arises' is under- 
stood before curiosity and knowledge ; at which words a con- 
siderable pause is necessary. 

Rule XXI. Modifying words and phrases, as, nay, so, 
hence, again, first, secondly , formerly , now, lastly, once more, 
above alt, on the contrary, in the next place, in short, and 
all other words and phrases of the same kind, must general- 
ly be separated from the context by a comma: as, 'Remem- 
ber thy best and first friend ; formerly, the supporter of thy 
infancy, and the guide of thy childhood; now, the guardian 
of thy youth, and the hope of thy coming years.' 'He 
feared want; hence he over-valued riches.' * This conduct 
may heal the difference ; nay, it may constantly prevent any 
in future.' 'Finally, I shall only repeat what has been 
often justly said.' ' If the spring put forth no blossoms, in 
summer there will be no beauty, and in autumn, no fruit; 
so, if youth be trifled away without improvement, riper years 
may be contemptible, and old age miserable.' 

In many of the foregoing rules and examples; great regard must be paid to 



PUNCTUATION SEMICOLON—COLON. 135 

the length of the clauses, and the proportion which they bear to one another; 
An attention to the sense of any passage, and to the clear, easy communica- 
tion of it, will, it is presumed, with the aid of the preceding rules, enable the 
student to adjust the proper pause, and the places for inserting the commas. 
The same remarks apply, with like force, to the rules following. 

OF THE SEMICOLON. 

§84. The Semicolon is used for dividing a compound 
sentence into two or more parts, not so closely connected as 
those which are separated by the comma, nor yet so little 
dependent on each other, as those which are distinguished 
by the colon. 

1. The semicolon is sometimes used, when the preceding 
member of the sentence does not of itself give a complete 
sense, but depends on the following clause 1 : and sometimes 
when the sense of that member would be complete without 
the concluding one ; as in the following instances : ' As the 
desire of approbation, when it works according to reason, 
improves the amiable part of our species in every thing that 
is laudable ; so nothing is more destructive to them when it 
is governed by vanity and folly. 1 ■ Experience teaches us, 
that an entire retreat from worldly affairs, is not what reli- 
gion requires ; nor does it even enjoin a long retreat from 
them.' * Straws swim upon the surface; but pearls lie at 
the bottom.' 

1 But all subsists by elemental strife ; 
And passions are the elements of life/ 

2. When several members of a sentence have a depend- 
ence on each other, by means of a substitute for the same 
principal word, and the clauses, in other respects, constitute 
distinct propositions, the semicolon may be used : as, • Wis- 
dom hath builded her house ; she hath hewn out her seven 
pillars ; she hath killed her beasts ; she hath mingled her 
wine; she hath also furnished her table.' 

OF THE COLON. 

§85. The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two 
or more parts, less connected than those which are separa- 
ted by a semicolon ; but not so independent as to form sep- 
arate distinct sentences. 

The Colon may be properly applied in the three following 
cases. 



136 SYNTAX. 

1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but 
followed by some supplemental remark, or further illustra- 
tion of the subject : as, ' Nature felt her inability to extri- 
cate herself from the consequences of guilt : the gospel re- 
veals the plan of Divine interposition and aid.' ■ Nature 
confessed some atonement to be necessary : the gospel dis- 
covers that the necessary atonement is made/ 

2. When several semicolons have preceded, and a still 
greater pause is necessary, in order to mark the connecting 
or concluding sentiment : as, ' A divine legislator, uttering 
his voice from heaven; an almighty governor, stretching 
forth his arm to punish or reward ; informing us of perpetual 
rest prepared hereafter for the righteous, and of indignation 
and wrath awaiting the wicked : these are the considerations 
which overawe the world, which support integrity, and 
check guilt.' 

3. The Colon is commonly used when an example, a 
quotation, or a speech is introduced : as, \ The Scriptures 
give us an amiable representation of the Deity, in these 
words : • God is love.' ' ■ He was often heard to say : * I 
have done with the world, and am willing to leave it.' ', 

The impropriety of using 1 a colon, or semicolon, is sometimes determined 
by a conjunction's being expressed, or not expressed : as, ' Do not flatter 
yourselves with the hope of perfect happiness *• there is no such thing in the 
world/ ' Do not flatter yourselves with the hope of perfect happiness 5 for 
there is no such thing in the world.' 

OF THE PERIOD. 

§86. When a sentence is complete and independent, 
and not connected in construction with the following sen- 
tence, it is marked with a Period. 

Some sentences are independent of each other, both in 
their sense and construction : as, ' Fear God. Honor the 
king. Have charity towards all men.' Others are inde- 
pendent only in their grammatical construction : as, ' The 
Supreme Being changes not, either in his desire to promote 
our happiness, or in the plan of his administration. One 
light always shines upon us from above. One clear and 
direct path is always pointed out to man.' 

A period may sometimes be admitted between two sentences, though they 
are joined by a disjunctive or copulative conjunction. For the quality of the 
point does not always depend on the connective particle, but on the sense 



PUNCTUATION— DASH, &C. 137 

and structure of sentences : as, ' Recreations, though they may be of an in- 
nocent kind, require steady government, to keep them within a due and lim- 
ited province. But such as are of an irregular and vicious nature, are not to 
be governed, but to be banished from every well-regulated mind/ 

The period should be used after every abbreviated word : as, 'M. S. P. S, 
N. B. A. D. O. S. N, S. ult. i.e. Pro tern. Me.' &c. 

OF THE DASH. 

§87. The Dash, though often used improperly by hasty 
and incoherent writers, may be introduced with propriety, 
where the sentence breaks off abruptly ; where a significant 
pause is required ; or where there is an unexpected turn in 
the sentiment : as, ' If thou art he, so much respected once 
—but, oh ! how fallen ! how degraded !' 4 If acting con- 
formably to the will of our Creator ; — if promoting the wel- 
fare of mankind around us; — if securing our own happi- 
ness ; — are objects of the highest moment : — then we are 
loudly called upon, to cultivate and extend the great inter- 
ests of religion and virtue.' 

A dash following a stop, denotes that the pause is to be greater than if the 
stop were alone : and when used by itself, requires a pause of such length as 
the sense alone can determine. 

1 Here lies the great False marble, where 1 

Nothing but sordid dust lies here/ 

OF THE INTERROGATION POINT. 

§88. A note of Interrogation is used at the end of an 
interrogative sentence; that is, when a question is asked : 
as, 'Who will accompany me?' 'Shall we always be 
friends V 

Questions which a person asks himself in contemplation, ought to be ter- 
minated by points of interrogation : as, ' Who adorned the heavens with such 
exquisite beauty V ' At whose command do the planets perform their con- 
stant revolutions V 

A point of interrogation is improper after sentences which are not ques* 
tions, but only expressions of admiration, or of some other emotion: as, 
' How many instances have we of chastity and excellence in the fair sex !" 

A note of interrogation should not be employed, in cases where it is only 
said a question has been asked, and where the words are not used as a ques- 
tion : ' The Cyprians asked me, why I wept. ? To give this sentence the in- 
terrogative form, it should be expressed thus : ' The Cyprians said to me, 
Why dost thou weep V 

OF THE EXCLAMATION POINT. 

§89. The note of Exclamation is applied to expres- 
sions of sudden emotion, surprise, joy, grief, fee, and also 
H2 



138 SYNTAX. 

to invocations or addresses : as, * My friend ! this conduct 
amazes me !' ' Bless the Lord, O my soul ! and forget not 
all his benefits V 

' Oh ! had we both our humble state maintain'd. 

And safe in peace and poverty remain'd !' 

1 Hear me, O Lord ! for thy loving kindness is great V 

As a sign of great wonder, the exclamation point may be repeated : as, 
4 What ! abandon your friends, and then your God ! '. ; 

It is difficult, in some cases, to distinguish between an interrogative and 
exclamatory sentence ; but a sentence, in which any wonder or admiration is 
expressed, and no answer either expected or implied, may always be prop- 
erly terminated by a note of exclamation : as, ' How much vanity in the pur- 
suits of men ! ; ' Who can sufficiently express the goodness of our Creator V 
' What is more amiable than virtue !' 

The interrogation and exclamation points ate indeterminate as to their 
quantity or time, and may be equivalent in that respect to a semicolon, a 
colon, or a period, as the sense may require. They mark an elevation of the 
voice. 

The utility of the points of Interrogation and Exclamation, appears from 
the following example, in which the meaning is signified and discriminated 
solely by the points. 

1 How great was the sacrifice \ J 
' How great was the sacrifice V 



OF OTHER MARKS. 

§90. There are other characters, which are frequently 
made use of in written composition for various purposes. 
They are the following : 

1. [ ( ) ] The Parenthesis is a mark containing some 
necessary information, or useful remark, introduced into 
the body of a sentence obliquely, and which may be omitted 
without injuring the grammatical construction : as, 

* Know then this truth (enough for man to know), 
Virtue alone is happiness below.* 

'To gain a posthumous reputation, is to save four or five 
letters (for what is a name besides?) from oblivion.' 'Know 
ye not, brethren, (for I speak to those that know the law,) 
how that the law hath dominion over a man as long as he 
livethr 

If the incidental clause is short, or perfectly coincides with the rest of the 
sentence, it is not proper to use the parenthetical characters. The following 
instances are therefore improper uses of the parenthesis : ' Speak you (who 
saw) his wonders in the deep. 7 ' Every planet (as the Creator has made 
nothing in vain) is most probably inhabited.' 

The parenthesis marks a moderate depression of the voice, and may be 
accompanied with every point which the sense would require, if the paren- 
thetical characters were omitted. It ought to terminate with the same kind 



PUNCTUATION APOSTROPHE, &C. 139 

of stop which the member has, that precedes it 5 and to contain that stop 
within the parenthetical marks. We must, however, except cases of interro- 
gation and exclamation: as, ' While they wish to please, (and why should 
they not wish it ?) they disdain dishonorable means.' 'It was represented 
by an analogy, (Oh, how inadequate !) which was borrowed from paganism/ 

2. [ ' ] The Apostrophe shows that a word or words are 
abbreviated, or shortened : and is placed over where the let- 
ters are omitted : as, His for it is ; tko' for though ; e'en for 
even ; judged for judged. Its chief use is to mark the 
possessive case of nouns: as, 'A man's property; a wo- 
man's ornament.' In this use it shows the omission of e or 
i; the ancient Saxon termination for the possessive being 
es or is. 

3. [ - ] The Hyphen is employed in connecting com- 
pounded words : as, lap-dog, tea-pot } pre-existence, self-love, 
to-morrow, mother-in-law. 

It is also used when a word is div.vded, and the former part is written or 
printed at the end of one line, and the latter part at the beginning- of another. 
In this case, it is placed at the end of the first line, not at the beginning of 
the second. 

4. [**] The Dieresis consists of two points placed over 
one of the two vowels that would otherwise make a diph- 
thong, and divides them into two syllables : as, creator, 
coadjutor, aerial. 

5. [ ' ] The Acute Accent is used to mark the syllable 
which requires the principal stress in pronunciation : as, 

fancy, equality. It is sometimes used in opposition to the 
grave accent, to distinguish a close vowel, or to denote the 
rising inflection of the voice. 

6. [ v ] The Grave Accent is used in opposition to the 

acute, to distinguish an open vowel, or to denote the falling 

inflection. 

The stress is laid on long and short syllables indiscriminately. In on'er to 
distinguish the one from the other, some writers of dictionaries have placed 
the grave on the former, and the acute on the latter, in this manner ; ' Minor, 
mineral, lively, livid, rival, river. 7 

7. [ a ] The Circumflex generally denotes the broad 
sound of a vowel : as, eclat, father. 

8. [-] The Macron is used to distinguish a long sylla- 
ble : as, rosy. 

9. [ w ] The Breve distinguishes a short syllable : as, 
folly. 

II 3 



140 SYNTAX. 

10. [ a ] The Caret is placed where some words or let- 
ters have been omitted, which are inserted over the line. 

11. [ ] or [****] The Ellipsis denotes the inten- 
tional omission of some words or letters : as, k — g, for Icing. 

12. [ >~^ ] The Brace serves to unite a triplet ; or to 
connect several terms with something to which they are all 
related. 

13. [§] The Section marks the smaller division-sofa 
discourse, or chapter. 

14. [ U ] The Paragraph denotes the beginning of a 
new subject, or a sentence not connected with the foregoing. 
This character is chiefly used in the Old, and in the New 
Testaments. 

15. [" "] The Quotation distinguishes words that are 
taken from another author, or speaker : as, " The proper 
study of mankind is man." 

A quotation within a quotation is marked with single points 5 which, when 
both are employed, are placed within the others. 

16. ] Crotchets or Brackets serve to enclose a word 
or sentence, which is to be explained in a note, or the ex- 
planation itself, or a word or sentence which is intended to 
supply some deficiency, or to rectify some mistake. 

17- [ 05^ ] The Index or Hand points out some re- 
markable passage, or something that requires particular at- 
tention. 

18. [ * ] The Asterisk, [ f ] the Obelisk, [ % ] the Double 
Dagger, [ || ] and the Parallels ; together with the letters 
of the alphabet and figures, are used as references to the 
margin, or bottom of the page. 

RULES RESPECTING THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 

§91. It was the custom, until the middle of the last cen- 
tury, as may be seen by reference to old books, to begin 
every noun with a capital ; but as this practice was trouble- 
some, and gave the writing a crowded and confused appear- 
ance, it has been discontinued. It is proper now to begin 
with a capital,— 



♦PTTNCTUATION USE OF CAPITALS. 141 

I. All proper names : as, 

1. Names of persons, tribes and nations: as, Willam, 
Henry, Creeks, Germans, French. 

2. Names of natural and political divisions, in Geogra- 
phy : as, America, Africa, Pacific, Scotland, United States, 
Vermont, Coos, Paris, Andes, Borneo. 

3. Names of religious denomintions, and of assemblies in 
general : as, Episcopalians, Congregationalists, Methodists, 
Parliament, Congress. 

4. Names of colleges, books, languages, arts and scien- 
ces : as, Oxford, Dartmouth, Bible, Iliad, Paradise Lost, 
Latin, English, Mathematics, Geology. 

5. Names of months and days, titles of officers, and names 
of orders and classes in animals and plants : as, May, Friday, 
King, General, Bishop, Chief Justice. 

6. Names and titles of the Supreme Being and our Sav- 
ior : as, God, Jehovah, Lord, Jesus, Christ, Redeemer ; 
also names of religions : as, Christian, Mahomedan. 

II. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places : 
as, Grecian, Roman, English, French, and Italian. 

III. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a 
colon, or when it is in direct form : as, Always remember 
this ancient maxim: ■ Know thyself/ Our great Law- 
giver says, ' Take up thy cross daily, and follow me.' " But 
not when a quotation is brought in obliquely after a comma : 
as, Solomon observes, ' that pride goes before destruction. ' 
The first word of an example may also very properly begin 
with a capital : as, ■ Temptation proves our virtue.' 

IV. The first word after a period ; and, if the two sen- 
tences are totally independent, after a note of interrogation 
or exclamation. 

But if a number of interrogative or exclamatory sentences are thrown into 
one general group 5 or if the construction of the latter sentences depends on 
the former, al! of them, except the first, may begin with a small letter; as, 
' How long, ye simple ones, will ye love simplicity ? and the scorners delight 
in their scorning? and fools hate knowledge? 7 ' Alas ! how different! yet 
how like the same ! ; 

V. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, 
or any other piece of writing. 



142 SYNTAX. 

VI. The first word of every line of poetry. 

VII. The pronoun J, and the interjection O, are written 
in capitals : as, ' 1 write :' ' Hear, O earth !' 

Other words, besides the preceding, may begin with capitals, when they 
are ernphatical, or the principal subject of the composition. 



EXERCISE ON PUNCTUATION. 

[The student is required to punctuate the following sentences in accord- 
ance with the foregoing rules ; and also tell where there should be capital 
letters, and where they are used erroneously.] 

When Socrates was asked what man approached the nearest to perfect 
happiness he answered That Man who has the fewest Wants 

Addison has remarked with equal Piety and Truth that the Creation is a 
perpetual Feast to the Mind of a good man 

Between Fame and true Honour a Distinction is to be made the former is 
a loud and noisy Applause the latter a more silent and internal Homage 
Fame floats on the Breath of the Multitude Honor rests or, the Judgment of 
the Thinking Fame may give Praise while it withholds Esteem true Honor 
implies Esteem mingled with respect The one regards Particular distinguish- 
ed Talents the other looks up to the whole character 

Xenophanes who was reproached with being timorous because he would 
not venture his money in a Game at Dice made this manly and sensible Re- 
ply I confess I am exceedingly timorous for I dare not commit and evil 
Action 

He loves nobly I speak of Frendship who is not jealous when he has Part- 
ners of love 

Let me repeat it He only is great who has the Habits of Greatness 

The proper and rational Conduct of Men with regard to Futurity is regu- 
lated by two Considerations First that much of What it contains must remain 
to us absolutely Unknown Next that there are also Some Events in it which 
may be certainly known and foreseen 

How many Rules and maxims of Life might be spared could we fix a prin- 
ciple of Virtue within and inscribe the living Sentiment of the Love of God 
in the affections he who loves righteousness is Master of all the distinctions 
in Morality 

Anxiety is the poison of Human Life it is the Parent of many Sins and of 
more Miseries in a World where every thing is so doubtful where we may 
succeed in our Wish and be miserable where we may be disappointed and 
be blessed in the Disappointment what mean this restless Stir and Commo- 
tion of Mind Can our Solicitude alter the Course or unravel the Intricacy of 
Human Events Can our Curiosity pierce through the Cloud which the Su- 
preme Being hath made impenetrable to Mortal Eye 

By the unhappy Excesses of irregular Pleasure in Youth how many amia- 
ble Dispositions are corrupted or destroyed how many rising Capacities and 
Powers are suppressed How many flattering Hopes of Parents and Friends 
are totally extinguished Who but must drop a Tear over Human Nature 
When he beholds that Morning which arose so bright overcast with such un- 
timely Darkness that Sweetness of Temper which once engaged many 
Hearts that Modesty which was so prepossessing these Abilities which prom- 
sed extensive Usefulness all sacrificed at the shrine of low Sensuality 



PART IV. 



PROSODY. 

§92. Prosody treats of Pronunciation, or Utter- 
<tnce, and Versification. 



CHAPTER I. 

OF PRONUNCIATION. 

Pronunciation comprises Accent, Quantity, Emphasis, 
Tone, and Pause, 

OF ACCENT. 

§93. Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of voice, 
on a certain letter or syllable in a word, that it may be bet- 
ter heard than the rest, or distinguished from them : as, in 
the word presume, the stress of voice must be on the letter 
u, and second syllable, sume, which take the accent* 

As words may be formed of a different number of syllables, from one to 
eight or nine, it is necessary to have some peculiar mark to distinguish them 
from mere syllables 5 otherwise speech would be only a continued succession 
of syllables, without conveying ideas ^ for, as words are the marks of ideas, 
any confusion in the marks, must cause the same in the ideas for which they 
stand. It is, therefore, necessary that the mind should at once perceive what 
number of syllables belongs to each word, in utterance. This might be done 
by a perceptible pause at the end of each word in speaking, as we form a 
certain distance between them in writing and printing. But this would make 
discourse extremely tedious ; and though it might render words distinct, 
would make Vhe meaning of sentences confused. Syllables might also be 



144 PROSODY. 

sufficiently distinguished by a certain elevation or depression of voice upon 
one syllable of each word , which was anciently the practice with some na- 
tions. But the English tongue has, for this purpose, adopted a mark of the 
easiest and simplest kind, which is called accent, and which effectually an- 
swers the end. 

Every word in our language, of more than one syllable, has one of them 
distinguished from the rest in this manner 5 and some writers assert, that 
every monosyllable of two or more letters, has one of its letters thus distin- 
guished. 

Accent is either principal or secondary. The principal accent is that 
which necessarily distinguishes one syllable in a word from the rest. The 
secondary accent is that stress which we may occasionally place upon 
another syllable besides that which has the principal accent 5 in order to pro- 
nounce every part of the word more distinctly, forcibly, and harmoniously ; 
thus, complaisant, caravan, and violin, have frequently an accent on the first 
as well as on the last syllable, though a somewhat less forcible one. The 
same may be observed of repartee, referee, privateer, domineer, &c. But it 
must be observed, that though an accent is allowed on the first syllable of 
these words, it is by no means necessary ; they may all be pronounced with 
one accent, and that on the last syllable, without the least deviation from pro- 
priety. 

OF QUANTITY. 

§94. The quantity of a syllable is that time which is 
occupied in pronouncing it. It is considered as long or 

SHORT. 

A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on the 
vowel ; which occasions it to be slowly joined in pronuncia- 
tion with the following letters : as, fall, bale, mood, house, 
feature. 

A syllable is short, when the accent is on the consonant; 
which occasions the vowel to be quickly joined to the suc- 
ceeding letter : as, ant, bonnet, hunger. 

A long syllable generally requires double the time of a 
short one in pronouncing it ; thus, mate and note should be 
pronounced as slowly again as mat and not. 

Unaccented syllables are generally short ; as, admire, 
boldness, sinner. But to this rule there are many excep- 
tions : as, also, exile, gangrene, umpire, &c. 

When the accent is on a consonant, the syllable is often 
more or less short, as it ends with a single consonant, or 
with more than one: as, sadly, robber; persist, matchless. 

When the accent is on a semi-vowel, the time of the sylla- 
ble may be protracted, by dwelling upon the semi-vowel : 
as, cur', can' .fulfil' ; but when the accent falls on a mute, 
the syllable cannot be lengthened in the same manner : as, 
bubble, captain, totter. 



PRONUNCIATION — EMPHASIS TONES. 145 

OF EMPHASIS. 

§95. By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound 
of voice, by which we distinguish some word or words 
in a sentence from the rest, on account of their importance. 
Sometimes the emphatic words must be distinguished by a 
particular tone of voice, as well as by a greater stress. 

On the right management of the emphasis depends the life of pronuncia- 
tion. If no emphasis be placed on any words, not only will discourse be ren- 
dered heavy and lifeless, but the meaning often left ambiguous. If the em- 
phasis be placed wrong, we shall pervert and confound the meaning wholly. 
To give a common instance : such a simple question as this, " Do you ride 
to town to day ? 77 is capable of no fewer than four different acceptations, ac- 
cording as the emphasis is differently placed on the words. If it be pronoun- 
ced thus : ' Do you ride to town to day V the answer may naturally be, 
'No, we send a servant in our stead/ If thus: ' Do you ride to town to- 
day V answer, ' No, we intend to walk/ ' Do 3-ou ride to town to-day V 
1 JNo, we ride into the country/ \ Do you ride to town today?' l No, but we 
shall to-morrow. 7 In like manner, in solemn discourse, the whole force and 
beauty of an expression often depend on the emphatic word ; and we may 
present to the hearers quite different views of the same sentiment, by placing 
the emphasis differently. In the following words of our Savior, observe in 
what different lights the thought is placed, according as the words are pro- 
nounced. 'Judas, belrayest thou the son of man with a kiss? 7 l Betray est 
thou/ makes the reproach turn on the infamy of treachery. ' Betrayest thou/ 
makes it rest upon Judas's connexion with his master. ' Betrayest thou the 
son of man/ rests it upon our Savior's personal character and eminence, 
' Betrayest thou the son of man with a kiss?' turns it upon his prostituting 
the signal of peace and friendship to the purpose of destruction. 

The emphasis often lies on the word that asks a question : as, ' Who said 
so?' ' When will he come? 7 * What shall I do? 7 ' Whither shall I go? 7 
* Why dost thou weep ? 7 And when two words are set in contrast, or in oppo- 
sition to one another, they are both emphatic 5 as, ' He is the tyrant, not the 
father, of his people ; 7 ' His subjects fear him, but they do not love him. 7 

Some sentences are so full and comprehensive, that almost every word is 
emphatical : as, ' Ye hills and dales, ye rivers, woods, and plains : 7 or, as that 
pathetic expostulation in the prophecy of Ezekiel, 'Why will ye die/ 7 In the 
latter short sentence, every word is emphatical ; and on whichever word we 
lay the emphasis, whether on the first, second, third, or fourth, it strikes out a 
different sense, and opens a new subject of moving expostulation. 

As accent dignifies the syllable on which it is laid, and makes it more dis- 
tinguished by the ear than the rest ; so emphasis ennobles the word to which 
it belongs, and presents it in a stronger light to the understanding. Were 
there no accents, words would he resolved into their original syllables : were 
there no emphasis, sentences would be resolved into their original words ; 
and, in this case, the hearer would be under the painful necessity, first, of 
making out the words, and afterwards, their meaning. 

OF TONES. 

§96. Tones are those modulations of the voice, depend- 
ing upon the feelings of the speaker, which are employed in 
the expression of our sentiments. ' 

To show the use and necessity of tones, we need only observe, that the 



146 PROSODY. 

mind, in communicating its ideas, is in a continual state of activity, emotion, 
or agitation, from the different effects which those ideas produce in the speak- 
er. Now the end of such communication being, not merely to lay open the 
ideas, but also the different feelings which they excite in him who utters them, 
there must be other signs than words, to manifest those feelings 5 as words 
uttered in a monotonous manner, can represent only a similar state of mind, 
perfectly free from all activity or emotion. As the communication of these 
internal feelings, was of much more consequence in our social intercourse, 
than the mere conveyance of ideas, the Author of our being did not, as in 
that conveyance, leave the invention of the language of emotion, to man ; 
but impressed it upon our nature in the same manner as he has done with 
regard to the rest of the animal world ; all of which express their various 
feelings, by various tones. Ours indeed, from the superior rank that we hold, 
are in a high degree more comprehensive; as there is not an act of the mind, 
an exertion of the fancy, or an emotion of the heart, which has not its peculiar 
tone, or note of the voice, by which it is to be expressed ; and which is suited 
exactly to the degree of internal feeling. It is chiefly in the proper use of 
these tones, that the life, spirit, beauty, and harmony of delivery consist. 

An extract from the beautiful lamentation of David over Saul and Jonathan, 
may serve as an example of what has been said on this subject. " The beauty 
of Israel is slain upon thy high places. How are the mighty fallen ! Tell it 
not in Gath 5 publish it not in the streets of Askelon : lest the daughters of 
the Philistines rejoice ; lest the daughters of the uncircumcisea triumph. Ye 
mountains of Gilboa, let there be no dew, nor rain upon you, nor fields of 
offerings ; for there the shield of the mighty was vilely cast away 5 the shield 
of Saul, as though he had not been anointed with oil V 7 The first of these 
divisions expresses sorrow and lamentation; therefore the note is low. The 
next contains a spirited command, and should be pronounced much higher. 
The other sentence, in which he makes a pathetic address to the mountains 
where his friends were slain, must be expressed in a note quite different from 
the two former ; not so low as the first, nor so high as the second, in a manly, 
firm, and yet plaintive tone. 

This correct and natural language of the emotions, is not so difficult to be 
attained, as most readers seem to imagine. If we enter into the spirit of the 
author's sentiments, as well as into the meaning of his words, we shall not 
fail to deliver the words in properly varied tones. For there are few people, 
who speak English without a provincial tone, that have not an accurate use 
of emphasis, pauses, and tones, when they utter their sentiments in earnest 
discourse : and the reason that they have not the same use of them, in read- 
ing aloud the sentiments of others, may be traced to the very defective and 
erroneous method, in which the art of reading is taught : whereby all the va- 
rious, natural, expressive tones of speech, are suppressed, and a few artificial, 
unmeaning, reading notes, are substituted for them. 

But when we recommend to readers an attention to the tone and language 
of emotions, we must be understood to do it with proper limitation. Modera- 
tion is necessary in this point, as it is in other things. 

OF PAUSES. 

§97. Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a 
total cessation of the voice, during a perceptible, and, in 
many cases, a measurable space of time. 

Pauses are equally necessary to the speaker, and the hearer. To the 
speaker, that he may take breath, without which he cannot proceed far in de- 
livery ; and that he may, by these temporary rests, relieve the organs of 
speech, which otherwise would be soon tired by continued action: to the 
heater, that the ear [also may be relieved from the fatigue, which it would 



PRONUNCIATION — PAUSES. 147 

otherwise endure from a continuity of sound ; and that the understanding may 
have sufficient time to mark the distinction of sentences, and their several 
members. 

There are two kinds of pauses : first, emphatic pauses ; and next, such 
as mark the distinctions of the sense. An emphatical pause is made, after 
something has been said of peculiar moment, on which we desire to fix 
the hearer's attention. Sometimes, before such a thing is said, we usher it 
in with a pause of this nature. Such pauses have the same effect as a strong 
emphasis 3 and are subject to the same rules ; especially to the caution just 
now given, of not repeating them too frequently. For as they excite uncom- 
mon attention, and of course raise expectation, if the importance of the mat- 
ter is not full}' answerable to such expectation, they occasion disappointment 
and disgust. 

But the most frequent and the principal use of pauses, is, to mark the di- 
visions of the sense, and at the same time to allow the speaker to draw his 
breath 3 and the proper and delicate adjustment of such pauses, is one of the 
most nice and difficult articles of delivery. In all reading, and public speaking, 
the management of the breath requires a good deal of care, so as not to oblige 
us to divide from one another, words which have so intimate a connexion, 
that they ought to be pronounced with the same breath, and without the least 
separation. Many sentences are miserably mangled, and the force of the 
emphasis totally lost, by the divisions being made in the wrong place. To 
avoid this, every one, while he is speaking or reading, should be very careful 
to provide a full supply of breath for what he has to utter. It is a great mis- 
take to imagine, that the breath must be drawn only at the end of a petiod, 
when the voice is allowed to fall. It may easily be gathered at the intervals 
of the period, when the voice is only suspended for a moment 3 and, by this 
management, one may always have a sufficient slock for carrying out tbe 
longest sentence, without improper interruptions. 

Pauses in reading, and public discourse, must be formed upon the manner 
in which we utter ourselves in ordinary sensible conversation 5 and not upon 
the stiff, artificial manner which we acquire, from reading books according to 
the common punctuation. It will by no means be sufficient to attend to the 
points used in printing 5 for these are far from marking all the pauses which 
ought to be made in speaking. A mechanical attention to these resting-places 
has perhaps been one cause of monotony, by leading the reader to a similar 
tone at every stop, and a uniform cadence at every period. The primary 
use of points is, to assist the reader in discerning the grammatical construc- 
tion 3 and it is only as a secondary object, that they regulate his pronuncia- 
tion. 

To render pauses pleasing and expressive, they must not only be made in 
the right place, but also accompanied with a proper tone of voice, by which 
the nature of these pauses is limited 5 much more than by the length of them, 
which can seldom be exactly measured. Sometimes it is only a slight and 
simple suspension of voice that is proper 3 sometimes a degree of cadence in 
the voice is required j and sometimes that peculiar tone and cadence which 
denote the sentence to be finished. In all these cases, we are to regulate our- 
selves, by attending to the manner in which nature teaches us to speak, when 
engaged in real and earnest discourse with others. 

It is a general rule, that the suspending pause should be used when the 
sense is incomplete 3 and the closing pause, when it is finished. But there are 
phrases, in which, though the sense is not completed, the voice takes the closing 
rather than the suspending pause 5 and others, in which the sentence finishes 
by the pause of suspension. 

The closing pause must not- be confounded with that fall of the voice, or 
cadence, with which many readers uniformly finish a sentence. Nothing is 
more destructive of propriety and energy than this habit. The tones and in- 
flections of the voice at the close of a sentence, ought to be diversified, ac- 



148 PROSODY. 

cording* to the general nature of the discourse; and the particular construction 
and meaning of the sentence. In plain narrative, and especially in argumen- 
tation, a small attention to the manner in which we relate a fact, or maintain 
an argument, in conversation, will show, that it is frequently more proper to 
raise the voice, than to let it fall, at the end of a sentence. Some sentences 
are so constructed, that the last words require a stronger emphasis than any 
of the preceding; while others admit of being closed with a soft and gentle 
sound. Where there is nothing in the sense which requires the last sound to 
be elevated or emphatical, an easy fall, sufficient to show that the sense is 
finished, will be proper. And in pathetic pieces, especially those of the plain- 
tive, tender, or solemn kind, the tone of the passion will often require a stilt 
greater cadence of the voice. The best method of correcting a uniform ca- 
dence, is frequently to read select sentences, in which the style is pointed, and 
in which antitheses are frequently introduced : and argumentative pieces, or 
such as abound with interrogatives, or earnest exclamation* 



CHAPTER II. 

OF VERSIFICATION. 

§08. Versification is the art of composing poetic verse, 
and consists in adjusting the long and short syllables, and 
forming feet into harmonious measure. 

The constituent parts of verse are Feet, Pauses and Ex- 
pression. 

Rhyme is the correspondence of the last sound of one line 
to the last sound of another. 

Blank verse wants rhyme. 

OF POETICAL FEET. # 

§99. A certain number of syllables connected, form a 
foot. 

They are called feet, because it is by their aid that the voice, as it were, 
steps through the verse, in a measured pace 5 and it is necessary that the 
syllables which mark this regular movement of the voice, should, in some 
manner, be distinguished from the others. 

All feet used in poetry consist either of two, or three syl- 
lables ; and are reducible to eight kinds ; four of two sylla- 
bles, and four of three, as follows: 

# The rules for the composition of English verse contained in this chapter, 
are copied from Webster's Manual. ' They are drawn/ says Dr. Webster, 
' from the writings of Dryden, Pope, and other great masters of poetry, chiefly 
by the late Judge Trumbull, of Connecticut, who was, probably, the most . 
accurate critic, in this department of literature, which the present age has 
produced." 



VERSIFICATION POETICAL FEET. 149 

Dissyllable. Trissyllable. 

An Iambus w- An Amphibrach u-^ 

A Trochee -u A Tribrach w w ^ 

A Spondee — A Dactyl - ^ w 

A Pyrrhic w w An Anapest u w- 

I. An Iambic foot, which is the ground of English num- 
bers, consists of two syllables, the first short and the second 
long. This foot is admitted into every place of the line. 
Example, all Iambics. 

" Where slaves once more their native land behold, 
No fiends torment, no christians thirst for gold." — Pope. 

II. The Trochee is a foot consisting of two syllables, the 
first long and the second short. Example. 

" Warms m the sun, refreshes in the breeze, 

Glows in the stars, and blossoms in the trees. 77 — Pope. 

The Trochee is not admissible into the second place of 
the line; but in the third and fourth it may have beauty, 
when it creates a correspondence between the sound and 
sense. 

is Eve, rightly calPd mother of all mankind. 77 

a And staggered by the stroke, drops the large ox, 77 

III. The Spondee is a foot consisting of two long sylla- 
bles. This may be used in any place of the line. 

1. " Good life be now my task, my doubts are done. 77 — Dryden. 

2. " As some lone mountain's monstrous growth he stood. 77 — Pope. 

But it has a greater beauty when preceded by a Trochee. 

" Load the tail bark and launch into the main. 77 

3. " The mountain goats came bounding o'er the lawn. 77 

4. " He spoke, and speaking in proud triumph spread, 
The long contended honors of her head. 77 — Pope. 

5. " Singed are his brows, the scorching lids grow black." — Pope. 

IV. The Pyrrhic is a foot of two short syllables ; it is 
graceful in the first and fourth places, and is admissible into 
the second and third. 

1, " Nor m the helpless orphan dread a foe. 77 — Pope, 

2. " On they move, 

IndissoZ&bly firm. 77 Milton. 

3. " The two extremes appear like man and wife, 

Coupled together for the sake of strife." — Churchill. 

H4 



150 PROSODY. 

But this foot is most graceful in the fourth place. 

" The dying gales that pant upon the trees ." 

"To farthest shores the ambrosial spirit flies, 
Sweet to the world and gvaleful to the skies. 

V. The Amphibrach is a foot of three syllables, the first 
and third short, and the second long. It is used in heroic 
verse only when we take the liberty to add a short syllable 
to a line. 

u The piece you say is incorrect, why take it, 
I'm all submission, what you'd have it, make it." 

This foot is hardly admissible in the solemn or sublime 
style. Pope has indeed admitted it into his Essay on 
Man. 

" What can ennoble sots or slaves or cowards, 
Alas ! not all the blood of all the Howards." 

Again : 

u To sigh for ribbands, if thou art s6 silly, 
Mark how they grace Lord Umbra or Sir Billy." 

But these lines are of the high burlesque kind, and in 
this style the Amphibrach closes lines with great beauty. 

VI. The Tribrach is a foot of three syllables, all short ; 
and it may be used in the third and fourth places. 

" And rolls impeiuous to the plain." 

Or thus : 

" And thunder down impeiuous to the plain." 

VII. The Dactyl, a foot of three syllables, the first long 
and the two last short, is used principally in the first place 
of the line. 

" Furious he spoke, the angry chief replied," 

" Murmuring, and with him fled the shades of night." 

VIII. The Anapest, a foot consisting of three syllables, 
the two first short and the last long, is admissible into eve*' 
ry place of the line. 

" Can a bosom so gentle remain, 
Unmoved when iier Corydon sighs ? 
Will a nymph that is fond of the plains, 
These plains and these valleys despise J 
Dear regions of silence and shade, 
Soft scenes of contentment and ease, 
Where I could have pleasantly stay'd, 
If aught in her absence could please-" 



VERSIFICATION POETICAL PAUSES. 151 

Trissyllabic feet have suffered most by the general igno- 
rance of critics ; most of them have been mutilated by apos- 
trophes, in order to reduce them to the Iambic measure. 

Thus in the line before repeated, 

11 Murmuring, and with him fled the shades of night," 

we find the word in the copy reduced to two syllables, 
munriring ; and the beauty of the Dactyl is destroyed. 
Thus in the following : 

" On every side with shadowy squadrons deep," 

by apostrophizing every and sliadowy, the line loses its har- 
mony. The same remark applies to the following : 

" And hosts infuriate shake the shudd'ring plain." 

" But fashion so directs, and moderns raise 

On fashion's mold 1 ring base, their transient praise. — Churchill, 

Poetic lines which abound with these trissyllabic ^eet, are 
the most flowing and melodious of any in the language ; and 
yet the poets themselves, or their printers, murder them with 
numberless unnecessary contractions. 

It requires but little judgment, and an ear indifferently 
accurate, to distinguish the contractions which are neces- 
sary, from those which are needless and injurious to the ver- 
sification. In the following passage we find examples of 
both. 

u She went from op'ra, park, assembly, play, 

To morning walks and prayers, three limes a day ; 

To pass her time 7 twixt reading and bohea 

To muse and spill her solitary tea ; 

Or o'er cold coffee trifle with a spoon, 

Count the slow clock, and dine exact at noon ; 

Divert her eyes with pictures in the fire, 

Hum half a tune, tell stories to the 'squire ; 

Up to her gorily garret after sev'n, 

There starve and pray, for that the's way to heav'n," — Pope's Epistles. 

Here e in opera ought not to be apostrophized, for such a 
contraction reduces an Amphibrachic foot to an Iambic. 
The words prayers, seven and heaven, need not the apostro- 
phe of e ; for it makes no difference in the pronunciation. 
But the contraction of over and betwixt is necessary ; for 
without it the measure would be imperfect. 

OF POETICAL PAUSES. 

§100. Pauses are of two kinds, viz : — the cesural pause, 
which divides the line into two equal or unequal parts ; and 
I 



152 PROSODY. 

final pause, which closes the verse. These pauses are call- 
ed musical, because their sole end is melody of verse. 

The pauses which mark the sense, and for this reason 
are denominated sentential, are the same in verse as in 
prose. They are marked by the usual stops, a comma, a 
semicolon, a colon, or a period, as the sense requires, and 
need no particular explanation. 

The cesural pause is not essential to verse, for the short- 
er kinds of measure are without it; but it improves both 
the melody and the harmony. 

Melody in music is derived from a succession of sounds : 
harmony from different sounds in concord. A single voice 
can produce melody ; a union of voices is necessary to form 
harmony. In this sense harmony cannot be applied to 
verse, because poetry is recited by a single voice. But har- 
mony may be used in a figurative sense, to express the effect 
produced by observing the proportion which the members of 
verse bear to each other. 

The cesural pause may be placed in any part of the verse : 
but has the finest effect upon the melody, when placed after 
the second or third foot, or in the middle of the third. 

After the second : 

li In what retreat, inglorious and unknown, 

Did genius sleep when dullness seiz'd the throne." 

After the third : 

u O say what stranger cause, yet unexplored, 
Could make a gentle belle reject a lord V 

In the middle of the third : 

" Great are his perils, in this stormy time, 
Who rashly ventures on a sea of rhyme. 77 

In these examples we find a great degree of melody, but 
not the same degree in all. In comparing the divisions of 
verse, we experience the most pleasure in viewing those 
which are equal ; hence, those verses which have the pause 
in the middle of the third foot, which is the middle of the 
verse, are the most melodious. Such is the third example 
above. 

In lines where the pause is placed after the second foot, 
we perceive a smaller degree of melody, for the divisions are 
not equal; one containing four syllables, the other six, as in 
the first example. 



VERSIFICATION — POETICAL PAUSES. 153 

But the melody in this example, is much superior to that 
of the verses which have the cesural pause after the third 
foot ; for this obvious reason : When the pause bounds the 
second foot, the latter part of the verse is the greatest, and 
leaves the most forcible impression upon the mind ; but 
when the pause is at the end of the third foot, the order is 
reversed. We are fond of proceeding from small to great, 
and a climax in sound pleases the ear, in the same manner 
as a climax in sense delights the mind. ^Such is the first 
example. 

It must be observed further, that when the cesural pause 
falls after the second and third feet, both the final and cen- 
sural pauses are on accented syllables ; whereas, when the 
cesural pause falls in the middle of the third foot, this is on 
a weak syllable, and the final pause on an accented syllable. 
This variety in the latter, is another cause of the superior 
pleasure we derive from verses divided into equal portions. 

The pause may fall in the middle of the fourth foot : as, 

u Let favor speak for others, worth for me-:" 

but the melody, in this case, is almost lost. At the close of 
the first foot, the pause has a more agreeable effect. 

u That's vile, should we a parent's fault adore, 
And err, because our father's err'd before V 

In the middle of the second foot, the pause may be used, 
but it produces little melody. 

" And who but wishes to invert the laws 
Of order, sins against the eternal cause." 

Harmony is produced by a proportion between the mem 
bers of the same verse, or between the members of different 
verses. Example. 

u Thy forests, Windsor, and thy green retreats,. 
At once the monarch's and the muse's seats, 
Invite my lays. Be present sylvan maids, 
Unlock your springs, and open all your shades." 

Here we observe, the pause in the first couplet is in the 
middle of the third foot ; both verses are in this respect sim- 
ilar. In the last couplet, the pause falls after the second 
foot. In each couplet, separately considered, there is a uni- 
formity ; but when one is compared with the other, there is 
a diversity. This variety produces a pleasing effect. The 
variety is further increased, when the first lines of several 



154 PROSODY. 

succeeding couplets are uniform as to themselves, and dif- 
ferent from the last lines, which are also uniform as to them- 
selves. Churchill, speaking of reason, lord chief justice in 
the court of man, has the following lines : 

" Equally formed to rule, in age or youth, 
The friend of virtue, and the guide to truth ; 
To her I bow, whose sacred power I feel, 
To her decision make ray last appeal 5 
Condemn'd by her, applauding words in vain 
Should tempt me to take up my pen again 5 
By her absolved the course I'll still pursue 3 
If Reason's for me, God is for me too." 

The first line of three of these couplets, has the pause 
after the second foot ; in this consists their similarity. The 
last line in three of them, has the pause in the middle of the 
third foot; they are uniform as to themselves, but different 
from the foregoing lines. This passage, which on the whole 
is very beautiful, suffers much by the sixth line, which is not 
verse, bnt rather hobbling prose. 

The foregoing remarks are sufficient to illustrate the use 
and advantages of the cesural pause. 

The final pause marks the close of a line or verse, wheth- 
er there is a pause in the sense or not. Sentential pauses 
should be marked by a variation of tone ; but the final pause, 
when the close of one line is intimately connected with the 
beginning of the next, should be merely a suspension of the 
voice, without elevation or suppression. Thus : 

ic Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
Brought death into the world, and all our woe," &c. 

When these lines are read without a pause after the words 
fruit and taste, they degeuerate into prose. Indeed, in 
many instances, particularly in blank verse, the final pause 
is the only circumstance which distinguishes verse from 
prose. 

OF EXPRESSION. 

§101. Expression consists in such a choice and distri- 
bution of poetic feet as are best adapted to the subject, and 
best calculated to impress sentiments on the mind. Those 
poetic feet, which end in an accented syllable, are the most 
forcible. Hence the Iambic measure is best adapted to 
solemn and sublime subjects. This is the measure of the 



VERSIFICATIOX EXPRESSION. 155 

Epic, of poems on grave moral subjects, of elegies, &,c. The 
Spondee, a foot of two long syllables, when admitted into 
the Iambic measure, adds much to the solemnity of the 
movement. 

" While the clear sun, rejoicing still to rise, 

In pomp rolls round immeasurable skies/ 7 — Dwiglit. 

The Dactyl, rolls round, expresses beautifully the majesty 
of the sun in his course. 

It is a general rule, that the more important syllables 
there are in a passage, whether of prose or verse, the more 
heavy is the style. For example : 

u A past, vamp'd, future, old, reviv'd new piece." 

" Men bearded, bald, cowl 7 d, uncowFd, shod, unshod." 

Such lines are destitute of melody, and are admissible 
only when they suit the sound to the sense. In the high 
burlesk style, of which kind is Pope's Dunciad, they give 
the sentiment an ironical air of importance, and from this 
circumstance derive a beauty. On the other hand, a large 
proportion of unaccented syllables or particles, deprives lan- 
guage of energy ; and it is this circumstance principally 
which in prose constitutes the difference between the grave 
historical, and the familiar style. The greatest number of 
long syllables ever admitted into heroic verse is seven, as in 
the foregoing; the smallest number is three. 

c 'Or to a sad variety of woe." 

The Trochiac measure, in which every foot closes with a 
weak syllable, is well calculated for lively subjects. 

'• -Softly sweet in Lydian measures, 
Soon he sooth'd his soul to pleasures ; 
War, he sung, is toil and trouble, 
Honor but an empty bubble. 77 &c. 

The Anapestic measure, in which there are two short syl- 
lables to one long, is best adapted to express the impetuosity 
of passion or action. Shenstone has used it to great advan- 
tage in his inimitable pastoral ballad. It describes beauti- 
fully the strong and lively emotions which agitate the lover, 
and his anxiety to please, which continually hurries him 
from one object and one exertion to another. 

" I have found out a gift for my fair, 
I have found where the wood pigeons breed 5 

12 



156 PROSODY. 

Yet let me that plunder forbear, 

She will say ? twas a barbarous deed. 
For he ne'er could prove true, she averr'd, 

Who could rob a poor bird of her young : 
And I lov!d her the more when I heard 

Such tenderness fall from her tongue." 

The Amphibrachic measure, in which there is a long 
syllable between two short ones, is best adapted to lively 
comic subjects ; as in Addison's Rosamond. 

11 Since conjugal passion 

Has come into fashion, 
And marriage so blest on the throne is, 

Like Venus I'll shine, 

Be fond and be fine, 
And Sir Trusty shall be my Adonis." 

Such a measure gives to sentiment a ludicrous air, and 
consequently is ill adapted to serious subjects. 

Great art may be used by a poet in choosing words and 
feet adapted to his subject. Take the following speci- 
mens : 

" Now here, now there, the warriors fall 3 amain 

Groans murmur, armor sounds, and shouts convulse the plain." 

The feet in the last line are happily chosen. The slow 
Spondee, in the beginning of the verse, fixes the mind upon 
the dismal scene of woe ; the solemnity is hightened by the 
pauses in the middle of the second and at the end of the 
third foot : but when the poet comes to shake the plains, 
he closes the line with three forcible Iambics. 

Of a similar beauty take the following example : 

" She all night long, her amorous descant sung." 

The poet here designs to describe the length of the night, 
and the music of the nightingale's song. The first he does 
by two slow spondees, and the last by four very rapid sylla- 
bles. 

The following lines from Gray's Elegy, written in a coun- 
try church yard, are distinguished by a happy choice of 
words. 

" For who, to dumb forgetmlness a prey, 

This pleasing anxious being e'er resigned ? 
Left the warm precints of the cheerful day, 

Nor cast one longing, lingering look behind ?" 

The words longing and lingering express most forcibly 
the reluctance with which mankind quit this state of exis- 
tence. 



VERSIFICATION — READING VERSE. 157 

Pope has many beauties of this kind. 

" And grace and reason, sense and virtue split, 
With all the rash dexterity of wit. 7; 

The mute articulations with which these lines end, ex- 
press the idea of rending asunder, with great energy and 
effect. The words rash and dexterity are also judiciously 
chosen. 

In describing the delicate sensations of the most refined 
love, Pope is remarkable for the choice of smooth flowing 
words. There are some passages in his Eloisa and Abe- 
lard, which are extended to a considerable length, without 
a single mute consonant or harsh word. 

OF READING VERSE. 

§10&. With respect to the art of reading verse, we can 
lay down but a few simple rules ; but these may perhaps 
be useful. 

1. Words should be pronounced as in prose and in con- 
versation ; for reading is but rehearsing another's conver- 
sation. 

2. The emphasis should be observed as in prose. The 
voice should bound from accent to accent, and no stress 
should be laid on little unimportant words, nor on weak 
syllables. 

3. The sentential pauses should be observed as in prose ; 
these are not affected by the kind of writing, being regula- 
ted entirely by the sense. But as the cesural and final 
pauses are designed to increase the melody of verse, the 
strictest attention must be paid to them in reading. They 
mark a suspension of voice without rising or falling. 

To read prose well, it is necessary to understand what is 
read; and to read poetry well, it is further necessary to 
understand the structure of verse. For want of this know- 
ledge, most people read all verse like the Iambic measure. 
The following are pure Iambics. 

tl Above how high progressive life may go ! 
Around how wide, how deep extend below \ 19 

It is so easy to lay an accent on every second syllable, 
that any school boy can read this measurse with tolerable 
propriety. But the misfortune is, that when a habit of read- 
ing this kind of meter is once formed, persons do not vary 
I 3 



158 PROSODY. 

their manner to suit other measures. Thus, in reciting the 
following line, 

" Load the tall bark, and launch into the main," 

many people would lay the accent on every second syllable ; 
and thus read, our poetry becomes the most monotonous and 
ridiculous of all poetry in the world. 

Let the following line be repeated without its pauses, and 
it looses its principal beauty : 

11 Bold, as a hero, as a virgin mild." 

So in the following. 

" Reason, the card, but passion is the gale." 

u From storms, a shelter, and from heat a shade." 

The harmony, in all these instances, is much improved 
by the semi-pauses, and at the same time the sense is more 
clearly understood. 

Considering the difficulty of reading verse, it is not sur- 
prising to find but few who are proficients in this art. A 
knowledge of the structure of verse, of the several kinds of 
feet, of the nature and use of the final, the cesural, and the 
semicesural pauses, is essential to a graceful manner of read- 
ing poetry ; and even this, without the best examples, will 
hardly effect the purpose. It is for this reason that children 
should not be permitted to read poetry of the more difficult 
kind, without the best examples for them to imitate. They 
frequently contract, in early life, either a monotony or a 
sing song cant, which, when grown into a habit, is seldom 
if ever eradicated. 



APPENDIX, 



OF THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 



A 

§103. A has five sounds ; the long or slender, the short, the 
broad, the middle, and the short sound of o. 

It has the long sound, as heard in name, fate ; the short, as in 
fancy, fat; the broad, as in wall, ball ; the middle, as in far, ask, 
father; and the short sound of o, as in what. 

The diphthong aa generally sounds like a short in proper names : 
as in Balaam, Canaan, Isaac; but not in Baal, Gaal. 

Ae has the sound of long e. It is sometimes found in Latin 
words. Some authors retain this form : as, aenigma, sequator, &c. ; 
but others have laid it aside, and write enigma, Cesar, Eneas, &c. 

The diphthong ai has exactly the long slender sound of a, as in 
pail, tail, &c ; pronounced pale, tale, &,c. ; except plaid, Britain, 
and a few others. 

Au is generally sounded like the broad a : as in taught, caught, 
&c. 

It has the sound of long o in hautboy. 

Aw has always the sound of broad a: as in bawl, scrawl, crawl. 

Ay, like its near relation, ai, is pronounced like the long slender 
sound of a : as in pay, day, delay. 

B 

B keeps one unvaried sound, at the beginning, middle, and end 
of words: as in baker, number, rhubarb, &c. 

In some words it is silent : as in thumb, debtor, subtle, &c. 

e 

C has two different sounds. 

A hard sound like £, before a, o, u, r, Z, t : as in cart, cottage, 
curious, craft, tract, cloth, &c. ; and when it ends a syllable : as 
in victim, flaccid. 



160 APPENDIX ORTHOGRAPHY. 

A soft sound like s before e, i, and y, generally ; as in centre^ 
face, civil, cymbal, mercy, &c. It has sometimes the sound of sh, 
as in ocean, social. 

C is mute in czar, czarina, victuals, &c. 

Ch is commonly sounded like tsh, as in church, chin, chaff, char- 
ter : but in words derived from the Greek, has the sound of k, as 
in chimist, scheme, chorus, chyle : and in foreign names, as Achish, 
Baruch, Enoch, &c. 

Ch, in some words derived from the French, takes the sound of 
sh, as in chaise, chagrin, chevalier, machine. 

Ch in arch, before a vowel, sounds like k, as in arch-angel, ar- 
chiies, Archipelago; except in arched, archery, archer, and arch- 
enemy ; but before a consonant it always sounds like tch, as in 
archbishop, archduke, archpresbyter, &c. Ch is silent in schism, 
and yacht. 

D 

D keeps one uniform sound, at the beginning, middle, and end 
of words, as in death, bandage, kindred. 

E 

E has three different sounds. 

A long sound, as in scheme, glebe, severe, pulley. 

A short sound, as in men, bed, clemency. 

An obscure and scarcely perceptible sound, as, open, lucre, par- 
ticiple. 

E is always mute at the end of a word, except in monosyllables 
that have no other vowel, as me, be, she ; or in substantives deriv- 
ed from the Greek, as catastrophe, epitome, Penelope. It is used 
to soften and modify the foregoing consonant; as, force, rage, 
since, oblige : or to lengthen the preceding vowel; as, can, cane; 
pin, pine ; rob, robe. 

The diphthong ea is generally sounded like e long, as in appear, 
beaver, creature, &c. It has also the sound of short e, as in 
breath, meadow, treasure. And it is sometimes pronounced like 
the long and slender a, as in bear, break, great. 

Eau has the sound of long o, as in beau, flambeau, portmanteau. 
In beauty and its compounds, it has the sound of long u. 

Ei, in general, sound the same as long and slender a, as in 
deign, vein, neighbor, &c. It has the sound of long e in seize, de- 
ceit, reeeive, either, neither, &o. It is sometimes pronounced 
like short i, as in foreign, forfeit, sovereign, &c. 

Eo is pronounced like e long, as in people; and sometimes like 
e short, as in leopard, jeopardy. It has also the sound of short u 3 
as in dungeon, sturgeon, puncheon, &c. 

Ew is almostalways pronounced like long u, as in few, new, dew. 

Eu is always sounded like long u or ew ; as in feud, deuce. 

Ey, when the accent is on it, is always pronounced like a long, 
as in bey, grey, convey ; except in key, ley, where it is sounded 
like long e. 

When this diphthong is unaccented, it takes the sound of e long, 
as, alley, valley, barley. 



SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 161 



F keeps one pure unvaried sound at the, beginning, middle, and 
end of words, as fancy, muffin, mischief, &c. : except in of, in 
which it has the sound of ov ; but not in composition, as whereof, 
thereof, &c. We should not pronounce, a wive's jointure, a 
calve's head; but a wife's jointure, a calf's head. 

a 

G has two sounds: one hard, as in gay, go, gun ; the other soft, 
as in gem, giant. 

At the end of a word it is always hard, as in bag, snug, frog. It 
is hard before a, 0, w, Z, and r, as, game, gone, gull, glory, gran- 
deur. 

G before e, i, and y, is soft, as in genius, gesture, ginger, Egypt; 
except in get, gewgaw, finger, craggy, and some others. 

G is mute before n, as in gnash, sign, foreign, &c. 

Gn, at the end of a word, or syllable accented, gives the prece- 
ding vowel a long sound, as in resign, impugn, oppugn, irnpregn, 
impugned; pronounced impune, imprene, &c. 

Gh, at the beginning of a word, has the sound of the hard g, as 
in ghost, ghastly; in the middle, and sometimes at the end, it is 
quite silent, as in right, high, mighty. 

At the end it has often the sound of/, as in laugh, cough, tough. 
Sometimes only the g is sounded, as in burgh, burgher. 

H 

The sound signified by this letter is an articulate sound, and not 
merely an aspiration. It is heard in the words hat, horse, hull. 
It is seldom mute at the beginning of a word. It is always silent 
after r, as in rhetoric, rheum, rhubarb. 

H final, preceded by a vowel, is always silent, as ah ! fah ! oh ! 
foh ! Sarah, Messiah. 

From the faintness of the sound of this letter, in many words, 
and its total silence in others, added to the negligence of tutors, 
and the inattention of pupils, it has happened, that many persons 
have become almost incapable of acquiring its just and full pronun- 
ciation. It is, therefore, incumbent on teachers, to be particularly 
careful to inculcate a clear and distinct utterance of this sound. 

I 

i" has a long sound, as in fine ; and a short one, as in fin. 

The long sound is always marked by the e final in monosylla- 
bles, as thin, thine ; except give, live. Before r it is often sound- 
ed like a short u, as flirt, first. In some words it has the sound of 
e long, as in machine, bombazine, magazine. 

The diphthong ia is frequently sounded like ya, as in christian, 
filial, poniard ; pronounced christ-yan, &c. It has sometimes the 
sound of short i t as in carriage, marriage, parliament. 

Ie sounds in general like e long, as in grief, thief, grenadier. It 
has also the sound of long i, as in die, pie, lie ; and sometimes that 
of short i, as in sieve. 



162 APPENDIX ORTHOGRAPHY. 

leu has the sound of long w, as in lieu, adieu, purlieu. 

Io, when the accent is upon the first vowel, forms two distinct 
syllables, as priory, violet, violent. The terminations tion and 
sion, are sounded exactly like shun, except when the t is preceded 
by 5 or z, as in question, digestion, combustion, mixtion, &c. 

The triphthong iou is sometimes pronounced distinctly in two 
syllables; as in various, abstemious. But these vowels often coa- 
lesce into one syllable, as in precious, factious, noxious. 

J 

J is pronounced exactly like soft g. 

H 

K has the sound of c hard, and is used before e and i, where, ac- 
cording to English analogy, c would be soft, as kept, king, skirts. 
It is not sounded before n, as in knife, knell, knocker. It is never 
doubled, except in Habakkuk. 

Xa 

L has always a soft liquid sound, as in love, billow, quarrel. It 
is sometimes mute, as in half, talk, psalm. The custom is to double 
the I at the end of monosyllables, as mill, will, fall; except 
where a diphthong precedes it, as hail, toil, soil. 

Le at the end of words, is pronounced like a weak el, in which 
the e is almost mute, as table, shuttle. 

m 

M has always the same sound, as murmur, monumental. 

N 

N has two sounds ; the one pure, as in man, noble ; the other a 
ringing sound, like ng, as in thank, banquet, &c. 

N is mute when it ends a syllable, and is preceded by m, as in 
hymn, solemn, autumn. 

The participial ing must always have its ringing sound, as wri- 
ting, reading, speaking. Some writers have supposed that when 
ing is preceded by ing, in should be pronounced in, as, singing, 
bringing, should be pronounced singin, bringin ; but this practice 
is unauthorized and absurd. 



O has a long sound, as in note, bone, obedient, over ; and a short 
one, as in not, got, lot, rot, trot. 

It has sometimes the short sound of u: as, son, come, attorney. 
And in some words it is sounded like oo } as in prove, move ; and 
often like au, as in nor, for, lord. 

The diphthong oa is regularly pronounced as the long sound of 
o : as, boat, oat, coal; except in broad, abroad, groat, where it takes 
the sound of broad a, as in broad, &c. 

Oi has almost universally a double sound of a broad and c long 
united, as in boy : as, boil, toil, spoil, joint, point, anoint: which 



SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 163 

should never be pronounced as if it were written bile, spile, tile, 
«fcc. 

Oo almost always preserves its regular sound, as in moon, soon, 
food. It has a shorter sound in wool, good, foot, and a few others. 
In blood and flood it sounds like short u. Door and floor should 
always be pronounced as if written dore and flore. 

The diphthong ou has six different sounds. The first and proper 
sound is equivalent to ow in down ; as in bound, found, surround. 

The second is that of short u; as in enough, trouble, journey. 

The third is that of oo ; as in soup, youth, tournament. 

The fourth is that of long o ; as in though, mourn, poultice. 

The fifth is that of short o ; as in cough, trough. 

The sixth is that of awe; as in ought, brought, thought. 

Ow is generally sounded like ou in thou ; as in brown, dowry, 
shewer. It has also the sound of long o ; as in show, grown, be- 
stow. 

The diphthong oy is but another form for oi, and is pronounced 
exactly like it. 

P 

P has always the same sound. It is sometimes mute, as in 
psalm, psalter, Ptolemy; and between m and t ; as tempt, empty, 
presumptuous. 

Ph is generally pronounced like jf, as in philosophy, philanthro- 
py, Philip. 

* In Stephen, it has the sound of v. In apophthegm, phthisis, 
phthisic, and phthisical, both letters are entirely silent. 

Q 

Q is always followed by w, as in quadrant, queen, quire. 
Qu is sometimes sounded like k, as conquer, liquor : risque, and 
sometimes like kio, as in question. 

R 

R has a rough sound, as in Rome, river, rage; and a smooth 
one, as in hard, card, regard. 

Re at the end of many words, is pronounced like a weak er, as 
in theatre, sepulchre, massacre. 

s 

S has two different sounds. 

A soft and flat sound like z: as, besom, nasal, dismal. 

A sharp hissing sound : as, saint, sister, Cyprus. 

It is always sharp at the beginning of words. 

At the end of words it takes the soft sound : as his, was, trees, 
eyes ; except in the words this, thus, us, yes, rebus, surplus, &c. ; 
and in words terminating with ous. 

It sounds like z before zora, if the vowel goes before : as, intrusion ; 
but like s sharp, if it follows a consonant : as, conversion. It also 
sounds like z before c mute : as, amuse; and before y final : as, 
rosy; and in the words, bosom, desire, wisdom, (fee. 

S is mute in isle 5 island, demesne, viscount. 



164 APPENDIX ORTHOGRAPHY. 



T generally sounds, as in take, tempter. Ti before a vowel has 
the sound of sh : as in salvation; except in such words as tierce, 
tiara, &c, and unless an s goes before : as, question ; and except- 
ing also derivatives from words ending in ty : as, mighty, mightier. 

Th has two sounds; the one soft and flat; as, thus, whether, 
heathen ; the other hard and sharp ; as, thing, think, breath. 

Th, at the beginning of words, is sharp : as in thank, thick, thun- 
der ; except in that, then, thus, thither, and some others. Th, at 
the end of words, is also sharp: as, death, breath, mouth; except 
in with, booth, beneath, &c. 

Th, in the middle of words, is sharp : as, panther, orthodox, mis- 
anthrope ; except worthy, farthing, brethren, and a few others. 

Th, between two vowels, is generally flat in words purely Eng- 
lish : as, father, heathen, together, neither, mother. 

Th, between two vowels, in words from the learned languages, 
is generally sharp: as, apathy, sympathy, Athens, apothecary. 

Th, is sometimes pronounced like simple t: as, Thomas, thyme, 
Thames. 

IT 

U has three sounds, viz. 

A long sound : as in mule, tube, cubic. 

A short sound : as in dull, gull, custard. 

An obtuse sound, like oo : as in bull, full, bushel. 

The strangest deviation of this letter from its natural sound, is in 
the words, busy, business, bury, and burial; which are pronounced 
bizzy, bizness, berry, and berrial. 

A is now often used before words beginning with u long, an al- 
ways before those that begin with u short: as, a union, a universi- 
ty, a useful book ; an uproar, an usher, an umbrella. 

The diphthong ua, has sometimes the sound of 10a : as in assuage, 
persuade, antiquary. It has also the sound of middle a : as in guard, 
guardian, guaranty. 

Ui is frequently pronounced wi: as in languid, anguish, extin- 
guish. It has sometimes the sound of i long ; as in guide, guile, dis- 
guise ; and sometimes that of i short : as in guilt, guinea, Guild- 
hall. In some words it is sounded like long u, as in juice, suit, pur- 
suit; and after r, like oo, as in bruise, fruit, recruit. 

Uo is pronounced like wo, as in quote, quorum, quondam. 

Uy has the sound of long e, as in obloquy, soliloquy; pronoun- 
ced obloquee, &c. ; except buy, and its derivatives. 

V 

V has the sound of flat/; and bears the same relation to it, as b 
does to p, d to I, and g to k, and z to s. It has also one uniform 
sound : as vain, vanity, love. 

w 

W, when a consonant, has nearly the sound of oo ; as water re- 
sembles the sound of ooater ; but that it has a stronger and quicker 
sound than oo, and has a formation essentially different, will appear 



SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 165 

to any person who pronounces, with attention, the words wo, woo, 
beware; and who reflects that it will not admit the definitive an be- 
fore it; which oo would admit. In some words it is not sounded, 
as in answer, wholesome; it is always silent before r, as in wrap, 
wreck, wrinkle, wrist, wry, &c. 

W before h is pronounced as if it were after the h ; as, why, hwy ; 
when, hwen ; what, hwat. 

W\s often joined to o at the end of a syllable, without affecting 
the sound of that vowel, as in crow, blow, grow, know, row, flow, 
&c. 

When w is a vowel, and is distinguished in the pronunciation, it 
has exactly the same sound as u would have in the same situation : 
as, draw, crew, view, now, sawyer, vowel, outlaw. 

X 

X has three sounds, viz. 

It is sounded like z at the beginning of proper names of Greek 
original : as, in Xanthus, Xenophon, Xerxes. 

It has a sharp sound like ks, when it ends a syllable with the ac- 
cent upon it: as, exit, exercise, excellence; or when the accent is 
on the next syllable, if it begins with a consonant : as, excuse, ex- 
tent, expense. 

It has generally a flat sound like gz, when the accent is not on 
it, and the following syllable begins with a vowel ; as, exert, exist, 
example; pronounced, egzert, egzist, egzample. 

Y 

Y, when a consonant, has nearly the sound of ee : as, youth, 
York, resemble the sounds of eeouth, eeork ; but that this is not its 
exact sound, will be clearly perceived, by pronounciug the words, 
ye, yes, new.year, in which its just and proper sound is ascertained. 
It not only requires a stronger exertion of the organs of speech to 
pronounce it, than is required to pronounce ee ; but its formation is 
essentially different. It will not admit of an before it, as ee will in 
the following example : an eel. The opinion that y and w, when 
they begin a word or syllable, take exactly the sound of ee and oo, 
has induced some grammarians to assert, that these letters are al- 
ways vowels or diphthongs. 

When y is a vowel it has exactly the same sound as i would 
have in the same situation : as, rhyme, system, justify, pyramid, 
party, fancy, hungry. 

z 

Z has the sound of an s uttered with a closer compression of 
the palate by the tongue; it is the flat s: as, freeze, frozen, brazen. 

It may be proper to remark, that the sounds of letters vary, as 
they are differently associated, and that the pronunciation of these 
associations depends upon the position of the accent. It may also 
be observed, that, in order to pronounce accurately, great attention 
must be paid to the vowels which are not accented. There is 
scarcely any thing which more distinguishes a person of a bad 
education, from a person of a good one, than the pronunciation of 



1 66 APPENDIX ORTHOGRAPHY. 

the unaccented vowels. When vowels are under the accent, the best 
speakers and the lowest of the people, with very few exceptions, 
pronounce them in the same manner ; but the unaccented vowels 
in the mouths of the former, have a distinct, open, and specific 
sound, while the latter often totally sink them, or change them into 
some other sound. 



RULES FOR SPELLING. 

§104. Rule I. When a syllable, or syllables, are added to a word 
ending in a consonant, the orthography of the word is rarely altered. Thus, 
from amend are formed amended, amending , amendable, amendatory, amend- 
ment ; the original word remaining without any change of letters. 

Rule II. The terminations ful, less, ric, rick, dom, some, ard, head, or 
hood, like, lock, ship, and generally ment, are added without any chenge 
of the original word. In general, hj is added after a vowel, without a change 
of the original word, as love, lovely ; home, homely. 

Rule ill. When the original word ends in e, and the termination, or syl- 
lable added, begins with e, one of these letters is omitted. Thus, from accuse, 
we form accused, accuser, not accuse-ed, accuse- er. So when ence, ent, or ous, 
is added, as in diverge, divergence, divergent; adherence, adherent; adduce, 
adducent ; rapture, rapturous. 

Rule IV. When the original word ends in e, and the termination begins 
with i, the letter e is omitted ; as in compose, composing. The exceptions are 
dyeing, singeing, in which e is retained to distinguish these words from dijing, 
singing. Before ty, e is changed to i, as in fertile , fertility ; hostile, hostility. 
Rule V. When the original word ends in the single vowel, y, and the 
termination begins with e or o, the letter y is omitted, and i is substituted 5 as 
in deny , denied , denier , fortified ; glory, glorious. But when the termination 
begins with i, the letter y is retained 5 as in denying, fortifying, complying . 
But before ous, y is sometimes changed to e, as in duty, duteous ; plenty, 
plenteous ; beauty, beauteous. 

Rule VI. When the original word ends in ee, and the termination begins 
with e, one e is omitted, as in Rule III, an example of which occurs in agree, 
agreed. But when the termination begins with i, or with a consonant, both 
letters, ee, are retained: as in agreeing, agreement; so also, before able, 
as in agreeable. 

Rule VII. When the original word ends in ay, ey, oy, ow, it suffers no 
change of orthography in the derivatives, Thus we write delay, delayed, de- 
layer, delaying ; alloy, alloyage, alloyed, alloying ; survey, surveyed, surveyor, 
surveying ; allow, allowable, allowed, allowing ; annoyance. 

To this rule, usage has improperly established the following exceptions : 
laid, paid, said. These ought to have been written layed, payed, sayed,&s 
in allayed, decayed, stayed. 

Rule V11I. Before a, the letter e is omitted, as in arrive, arrival; re- 
verse, reversal ; assure, assurance; resemblance, semblance. 

Rule IX. Before a, the letter y is omitted, and i substituted : as in defy, 
defiance; rely, reliance. 

Rule X. The letter i is substituted for the terminating letter?/, before 
consonants: as in certify, certificate; fortify, fortification ; holy, holiness; 
bounty, bountiful. 

Rule XI. The final e is omitted before able and ible : as in abate, abata- 
ble ; move, movable. So in reconcilable, ratable, salable. 



RULES FOR SPELLING. 167 

Exceptions. After c and g, the final e is retained, to prevent a wrong- pro- 
nunciation : as in peaceable, chargeable. 

Rule XII. Monosyllables ending in a single consonant after a single 
vowel, have the last consonant doubled in the derivatives ; as in beg, begged, 
begging, beggar ; rob, robbed, robber, robbing. 

Rule XIII. When words of more syllables than one, end in a single 
accented consonant, after a single vowel, that consonant is doubled in the de- 
rivatives: as abet, abetted abetting, abettor. So in admit, permit, regret. 
This rule is intended to prevent a wrong pronunciation, to which we should 
be liable, if the words were written abeled, abeting i admited, admiting. 

Rule XIV. But when the accent does not fall on the last consonant of 
the words described in the foregoing- rule, the last consonant is not to be 
-doubled, as there is no danger of a wrong pronunciation. Examples : label, 
labeled, labeling ; libel, libeled, libeler, libeling, libelous ; worship, worsltiped, 
worshiper, worshiping. So in cavil, cancel, travel. 

When the last consonant is preceded by a digraph, (two vowels, one only 
being pronounced 3 ) the final consonant is never doubled : as in conceal, con- 
cealed, concealing. 

Rule XVI. The termination ive, after a consonant, does not change the 
original word : as effect, effective; but after the vowel e, this letter is omit- 
ted ; as in diffusive, from diffuse, repulse, repulsive. 

Rule XVI. The letter e, after bl,gl,pl,tl, is omitted before y; as in 
peaceable, peaceably i single, singly ; ample, amply ; gentle, gently; 

Rule XVII. The final e is omitted before ly in duly,' truly ; before ism 
in favoritism ; before ish in roguish, whitish. When ism is added after c, 
the pronunciation of c is chang-ed to that of s : as in stoicism, from stoic j and 
in catlwlicism, from catholic. 

Rule XVIII. Nouns take the feminine termination ess, in most cases, 
without any change of spelling- : as heir, heiress ; lion, lioness. But to this 
rule there are several exceptions : as actor, actress, instead of actoress ; ab- 
bot, abbess ; duke, duchess, and others, which are not reducible to rule. 

Rule XIX. Adjectives ending in ate, have corresponding nouns, ending 
in acy, as effeminate, effeminacy. Some adjectives ending in ent, have nouns 
in ence : as excellent, excellence ; others have nouns in ency : as efficient, effi- 
ciencij ; fluent, fluency. Some nouns ending in ce, have adjectives ending in 
cious : as grace , gracious ; space, spacious. Abundant has its corresponding 
noun, abundance, and redundant has redundanaj. 

Rule XX. When nouns end in a consonant, the termination ize, deno- 
ting to make, is added without a change of the original word : as civil, civil- 
ize ', moral, moralize ; legal, legalize / system, systemize. But when the ori- 
ginal word ends in a vowel, the letter t is inserted before ize: as in dogma, 
dogmatize') anathema, anathematize') stigma, stigmatize. [Systematize is 
wrong, and ought to be rejected.] 

Rule XXI. The letters in the original word, and in the derivatives, 
should be the same, unless the pronunciation, or some special reason, re- 
quires a difference, as uniformity is a prime rule in orthography. Thus de- 
fense, offense, expense, pretense, recompense, should be written with s, for the 
derivatives are always thus written : as defensive, offensive, expensive, pre- 
tension, recompensed. 

Rule XXII. As the old orthography of aulhour, ancestour, and others, is 
obsolete, and u omitted, all words of similar form should, for the sake of uni- 
form^', and in agreement with the originals, be written without u : as armor, 
candor, favor, ardor, color, labor, clamor, error, honor, parlor, splendor, rig- 
or, vapor, vigor, valor, inferior, interior, exterior, superior. This practice is 
demanded by another reason 3 some of the derivatives of these words, are 
never written with u : as laborious, invigorate, inferiority. 

Rule XXIII. The double I'm befoll,inslalLirUhrall,recall . forestall ,?niscall , 

1 4 



168 APPENDIX ORTHOGRAPHY. 

should be retained in the derivatives 5 as it is a rule that a has its broad sound 
before 11, but not always before a single I: shall and mall are exceptions. 

Rule XXIV. The letter & after c, is to be omitted in music, public, and all 
similar words, unless in frolick, trafick, whose derivatives, frolicking, traf- 
ficked, require this letter. It seems to be as absurd as unnecessary, to write 
musical, publication, without k, and music, public, with it. 

Rule XXV. The words connection, deflection, inflection, reflection, should 
not be written with x, but should follow their verbs, connect, deflect, inflect, 
reflect. 

Rule XXVI. The words advise, comprise, devise, revise, enterprise, sur~ 
prse, merchandise, zxe written withs, in accordance with their French originals. 

But the termination, ize, from the Latin and Greek, is more correct than 
ise, and it is convenient to retain it in all words in which it has the sense of 
make: as in legalize, to make legal 3 moralize, to make moral reflections. 
The words of this class are numerous. 

Rule XXVII. When the termination, ly, is added to a word ending in 
11, one / is omitted : as full, fully ; squall, squally ; hill, hilly. 

Rule XXVII. In several derivatives from the Greek, the word tome is 
changed into tomy : as in anatomy, bronchotomy, lithotomy, phlebotomy. The 
same change ought to take place in epitome, apotome, which should be written 
epitomy, apotomy. 

In like manner, from the Greek graphe, we write geography, topography, 
biography ; but from strophe, we write catastrophe, antislrophe ; and from 
phone, we write euphony, symphony; but inconsistently enough, we write 
hyperbole, syncope, synechdoche. All these, to be regular, ought to end in y. 

This change, in words thus derived, would not only produce regularity in 
the singular number, but also in the plural. To make catastrophe plural, we 
must now write catastrophes, which is irregular, or catastrophies, which is still 
more irregular. If the singular was written catastrophy, then we should form 
catastrophies, regularly, as in other words ending in y ,• glory, glories ', vanity, 
vanities. 

Rule XXIX. The letter e, of the original word, is omitted in entrance, 
from enter. So in cumbrance, cumbrous, monstrous, incumbrance, remem- 
brance, wondrous. But dangerous, ponderous, slanderous, retain e. 

Rule XXX. Inmost words from the French ending in re, these letters 
have, in English, been transposed. Thus, chartre, chambre, disastre, disordre, 
numbre, tigre, &c, are written in English, charter / chamber, disaster, disor- 
der, number, tiger. In like manner, we ought to write all other derivatives, 
with the same terminating letters: fiber , center , meter, miter, niter, ocher, 
scepter, sepulcher. Acre, and lucre must be exceptions. 

In the derivatives, e is omitted : as in fibril, fibrous, disastrous, central, 
lustrous, nitrous, sepulchral. 

Rule XXXI. In the following words, the letter e of the original is 
changed to i in the derivatives, as in the Latin : bitumen, bituminous ; omen, 
ominous ; stamen, stamina, staminal. 

Rule XXXII. The plural of staff, should be staffs, to distinguish the 
word from staves, a word of different signification. Stationery, confec- 
tionery, should follow stationer, confectioner, and coparcenery, coparcener. 

Rule XXXIII. As in anglicized words from foreign languages, diph- 
thongs have been generally rejected, as in economical, ecumenical ; it would 
be proper to extend the practice to other words: as Cesar, Enied, Atheneum, 
Diphthongs are troublesome in writing. 

Rule XXXIV. Certain gross errors in orthography, howevar common, 
ought to be rejected, as they have proceeded from mistakes, or in ignorance 
of the etymology of the words. Thus, comptroller, furlough, redoubt, re- 
doubtable, are, etymologically, nonsense. The true words are controller, 
furlow, redout, redoutable. Chymistry and chemistry, are both wrong; the 
genuine word is chimistry. Ton, a weight, is a gross mistake, confounding 



DERIVATION. 169 

the word with the French ton, from tonus. The English word is tun, a cask, 
which gave us the word when it signifies a weight. And so it was written 
down to the reign of Henry VIII. 

Mould is wrong spelling 5 the word is the Saxon mold, as written by Pope, 
Goldsmith, Hook, and others. 

The word gangue, in mineralogy, is not only a mistaken orthography, but 
barbarous. The word is gang, in all the languages on the continent, and so 
it is in English, in common use, and so it is pronounced. In German, ein 
erzreicher gang ; in Danish, mineralisk gang : a metallic vein. 

Oxide is a most wanton departure from original and analogical orthogra- 
phy. The genuine word, as originally and correctly formed, is oxyd. 

We ought to write embassador with e, as we do embassy ; and so it is al- 
ways written by Blackstone and Coke. 

Calcareous is wrong spelling. The true spelling is calcarious. Heinous 
is a wrong spelling. The true word is hainous. 

Build should be written, according to the original, bild. Feather and 
leather, in the original, were written differently 3 but the most general spel- 
ling was /ether, lether, as in German, feder, leder. 

There is an unaccountable disposition in writers, to add e final to words, 
without a show of reason : as in oxide, chlorine, deposite, reposite. In many 
cases, English authors add it to foreign words, which are without it. This is 
in bad taste. All our efforts should tend to the rejection of useless letters. 



OF DERIVATION. 



§105. Words are derived from one another in various ways, vizi 

1. Substantives, are derived from verbs. 

2. Verbs are derived from substantives, adjectives, and sometimes from 
adverbs. 

3. Adjectives are derived from substantives, 

4. Substantives are derived from adjectives. 

5. Adverbs are derived from adjectives. 

1. Substantives are derived from verbs: as, from 'to love/ comes 'lov- 
er ;' from ' to visit, visiter : 7 from ' to survive, surviver/ &c. 

In the following instances, and in many others, it is difficult to determine, 
whether the verb was deduced from the noun, or the noun from the verb, viz. 
' Love, to love 5 hate, to hate 3 fear, to fear 3 sleep, to sleep 3 walk, to walk ; 
ride, to ride 5 act, to act/ &ci 

2. Verbs are derived from substantives, adjectives, and sometimes from 
adverbs: as, from the substantive salt, comes, ' to salt 3' from the adjective 
warm, 'to warm: 7 and from the adverb forward, 'to forward.' Some- 
times they are formed by lengthening the vowel, or softening the consonant, 
as, from ' grass, to graze/ sometimes by adding en: as, from ' length, to 
lengthen 3" especially to adjectives : as, "from ' short, to shorten/ ' bright, to 
brighten- 7 

3. Adjectives are derived from substantives, in the following manner: 
Adjectives denoting plenty are derived from substantives by adding y : as ; 
from ' Health, healthy 3 wealth , wealthy : might, mighty/ &c. 

Adjectives denoting the mallerout of which any thing is made, are derived 
from substantives by 'adding en : as, from ' oak, oaken 3 wood, wooden i 
wool, woolen/ &c 

K 



170 APPENDIX ETYMOLOGY. 

Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from substantives, by adding 
ful: as, from ' joy, joyful 5 sin, sinful ; fruit, fruitful/ &c. 

Adjectives denoting- plenty, but with some kind of diminution, are derived 
from substantives, by adding some: as, from Might, lightsome 5 trouble, 
troublesome ; toil, toilsome, 7 &c. 

Adjectives denoting want are derived from substantives, by adding less: 
as, from f worth, worthless ;' from ' care, careless; joy, joyless/ &c. 

Adjectives denoting likeness are derived from substantives, by adding ly : 
as, from l man, manly; earth, earthly > court, courtly/ &c 

Some adjectives are derived from other adjectives, or from substantives, 
by adding ish to them ; which termination, when added to adjectives, imports 
diminution, or lessening the quality : as, ' white, whitish / i. e. somewhat 
white. When added to substantives, it signifies similitude or tendency to a 
character: as, * child, childish; thief, thievish." 

Some adjectives are formed from substantives or verbs, by adding the ter- 
mination able ; and those adjectives signify capacity : as, ' answer, answer- 
able ; to change, changeable. 7 

4. Substantives are derived from adjectives, sometimes by adding the ter- 
mination ness : as, ' white, whiteness ; swift, swiftness •/ sometimes by ad- 
ding th or t, arid making a small change in some of the letters : as, f long, 
length ; high, height/ 

5. Adverbs of quality are derived from adjectives, by adding ly, or chan- 
ging le i nto ly / and denote the same quality as the adjectives from which 
they are derived : as, from ' base/ comes ' basely / from ' slow, slowly '? r 
from ' able, ably.' 

There are so many other ways of deriving words from one another, that it 
would be extremely difficult, and nearly impossible to enumerate them. The 
primitive words of any language are very few ; the derivatives form, much 
the greater number. A few more instances only can be given here. 

Some substantives are derived from other substantives, by adding the ter- 
minations hood or head, ship, ery, wick, rick, dom, ian, ment, and age. 

Substantives ending in hood or head, are such as signify character, or 
qualities : at, ' manhood, knighthood, falsehood/ &c. 

Substantives ending in ship, are those that signify office, employment, 
state, or condition: as, 'lordship, stewardship, partnership/ &c. Some 
substantives in ship, are derived from adjectives : as, ' hard, hardship/ &c. 

Substantives which end in ery, signify action or habit : as, < slavery, fool- 
ery, prudery/ &c. Some substantives of this sort come from adjectives : as, 
' brave, bravery/ &c 

Substantives ending in wick, rick, and dom, denote dominion, jurisdiction 
or condition : as, * bailiwick, bishoprick, kingdom, dukedom, freedom/ &c. 

Substantives which end in ian, are those that signify profession : as, ' Phy- 
sician, musician/ &c. Those that end in ment and age, come generally from 
the French, and commonly signify the act or habit: as, 'commandment, 
usage/ 

Some substantives ending in ard, are derived from verbs or adjectives, and 
denote character or habit : as, ' drunk, drunkard 5 dote, dotard. ; 

Some substantives have the form of diminutives ; but these are not many. 
They are formed by adding the terminations, kin, ling, ing, ock, el, and the 
like : as, ' lamb, lambkin ; goose, gosling ; duck, duckling ; hill, hillock ; 
cock, cockerel/ &c. 

From the foregoing general view of Derivation, we shall proceed to give 
the pupil a list of the chief Prefixes and Suffixes of words in the English lan- 
guage, with their origin and general significations. A careful study of them 
will do much towards determining the sense of a vast number of words ; nev- 
ertheless, it must be acknowledged that an accurate and full understanding 
of the derivation and true meaning of many words, can only be obtained from 
a correct and complete dictionary of the English language. 



DERIVATION. 171 

EXPLANATION OF THE PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES. 

PREFIXES. 

§ 106. A Prefix is a letter, syllable, or word, added to the be- 
ginning of some other to vary or modify its primitive meaning. 

A List of the chief Prefixes, varying the import of some twenty 
thousand words. 

[L. stands for Latin ; Gr. for Greek j S. for Saxon, and Fr. for French.] 

A, L. ad, to — implies on, to, in, at 1 &$, abed, ashore, afar. It often denotes pri- 
vation ; as, apathy, want of feeling. In this sense it is peculiar to words de- 
rived from the Greek. Sometimes it haa no specific meaning, but only adds 
force to the word ; as, abide, aware. 

AB, ABS, L.*— signifies separation, departure, privation, aversion; as , abscision, 
the act of cutting off; abstract, to take from ; abhor, to have aversion to, or 
detest. 

AD, L. — denotes union, addition; as, adjoin, to unite to. When ad is prefixed to 
words beginning with c, /, g, I, n, p, s, r, t, the letter d is changed into those 
letters respectively ; as, affix, accede, appeal, instead of adfix, adcede, adpeal. 

AMBT, L. ambo, both, — tico, twofold, doubtful ; ambidexter, using both hands ; am- 
biguous, of doubtful import. 

AMPHI, Gr. — about, circular, two, doubtful : as, amphitheater, a building in a cir- 
cular form ; amphibious, living in two elements, air and water. 

AM, A MB, Contraction of Gr. amphi, which see ; as, ambulant, walking around. 

AN, Gr. — a privative ; as, anarchy, want of government. 

ANA, Gr. — again, up, back, through; as, anabaptism, baptism again ; anadronous, 
ascending up. 

ANTE, L. — before, prior to ; as, antedate, to date before the true time ; antedi- 
luvian, previous to the deluge. 

ANT, ANTI, L. anti, against— opposed to, against: as, antichrist, anticlimax* 

AFTER, S. aeft, behind — later, behind; as, afternoon, afterpart. 

ALL, S. eal — most, wholly, in a very great degree : a-s, all divine, all-consuming. 

APO, APH, Gr.— from, remote from, off, distant: as, apostle, one sent; apogee, 
from the earth ; aphelion, from the sun — that point in the earth's orbit farthest 
from the sun. 

ARCH, Gr. archos, chief— highest, chief ; as, Archbishop, chief bishop ; Archarck- 
itect, the highest architect. 

ARCHE, Gr. archaios — ancient; as, archeology, — science of antiquities. 

ASTRO, Gr. astron — a star; as, astronomy, the science of the stars. 

AUTO, Gr. autos — self, one's self ; as, autograph, one's own handwriting ; auto- 
biography, biography of one's own life, written by himself. 

BE, & be or big — (same word as by), nearness, about, on, to make : as, bedaub, to 
daub on or about ; beduck, to put under water. 

BENE, L. — good, well; as, benevolent, well wishing ; beneficent, doing goodj 
benediction, speaking well, or blessing. 

BT, BTS, L. bis, twice — two ; as, bifold, two fold ; biennial, once in two years. 

B1BLI0, Gr. biblos — a book ; as, bibliomany, book-madness ; bibliography, a de- 
scription of books. 

BIO, Gr. bios — life: as, biology, the science of life ; biography. 

BY, S. he — near, close, narrow ; as, bystander, bypath. 

CAT A, Gr. kata, against — against, or pertaining to ; as, Catabaptist, an opposer 
of baptism ; Catalogue, pertaining to words. 

CENT, CENT1, CENTU, L. centum— a hundred ; as, centuple? a hundred-fold ; 
ccntiped, an insect of a hundred feet. 

CHIRO, Gr. cheir— the hand ; as, chirography, one's own hand writing. 

CHRONO, Gr. chronos-—time ; as, chronology, the science of time. 

CHORO, Gr. choros — a particular place; as, chorography, the art of mapping a 
particular place. 

• The original word is not given when it is the same as the prefix. 



172 APPENDIX ETYMOLOGY. 

CIRCUM, L.— around ; as, circumnavigate, to sail round, 

CIS) Li — on this side ; cisalpine, on this side the Alps. 

CO, COM, CON, L. con, with — union, together ; as, conjoin, to join with. Col, cog, 

and cor have the same signification, n being changed for I, g, oir ; as, collect, 

to bring together. 
CONTRA, COUNTER, L. — against, opposite ; as, contravene, to come against ; 

counteract, to act in opposition to* 
COSMO, Or. cosmos — the world ; as, cosmopolite, a citizen of the world. 
DE, L.—from, down, separation, negation; as, debark, to go from a ship j debase, 

to bring down ; dethrone, to put off from the throne. 
DI, DIF, DIS, L, dis—from, out, not, separation, expansion; as, dismount, dilate, 

disbelieve. 
DECA, Or. — ten ; as, decalogue, the ten commandments. 
DEC, DECEM, L. — ten ; as, decempedal, ten feet in length ; decimal, tenth. 
DEMI, L. — half; as demitone, a half tone. 

DI, DI A, Or. — through ; as, diameter, measuring through ; dioptric, seeing through. 
DU, DUO, L. — two ; as, duplicate, two fold ; duodecimo, two and ten ; that is, 

twelve ; twelve leaves a sheet. 
DYS, Or. dus, bad — evil, bad; as, dysopsy, bad sight ; dyspepsy, had digestion. 
E, EX, L.—from, out of, beyond; as, evade, to escape from ; exclude, to shut out ; 

exceed, to go beyond. Ex, in some words, is changed to c/or ec. 
EN, EM, French en for L. in — in, on, increase ; as, embark, to go in 3 encumber, 

to place a weight on ; enlighten, to afford more light. 
ENTOMO, Or. entoma — an insect ; as, entomology, the science of insects. 
EPI, Gr. — on, upon, in ; as, epidermis, on the skin, the scarf-skin ; epitaph, an in- 
scription on a monument. 
EQ.U1, L. aquus — equal; as, equilateral, of equal sides. 

EU, Or. — good, well, praise ; as, eupepsy, good digestion ; eulogy, speech of praise. 
EXTRA, L.— beyond, mere than, without ; as, extraordinary , more than ordinary ; 

extravagant, going beyond the usual limits. 
FOR, S. — not, against, depriving ; as, forbid, to bid not to do ; forbear, to abstain 

from. 
FORE, S. — before, priority ; as, foreknow, foresee, foreordain. 
GENEA, Or. genos—race, kind; as, genealogy, a history of a race, or family. 
GEO, Or. ge — the earth ; as, geology, science of the earth. 
HELIO, Or. helios — the sun ; as, heliolater, a worshiper of the sun. 
HEMI, Or. hemi—half; as, hemisphere, half a sphere. 
HEPTA, Or. — seven; as, heptarchy, a government of seven kings. 
HETERO, Or. heteros, another — different, opposed to, of another nature ; as, hetero- 
geneous, of unlike kind ; heterodox, opposed to the true faith. 
HEX, HEXA, Or. — six ; as, hexagon, a figure of six angles. 
HIGH, S. heah, or hih — lofty, elevated ; as, high-minded, hish-born. 
HIER, IIIERO, Or. hieros, sacred — sacred, holy ; as, hierology, a sacred discourse. 
HOMO, Or. homos, same } equal — like of the same kind ; as, homocentric, having the 

same eenter. 
HYDRO. Or. hudor — water ; as, hydrology, the science of water. 
HYPER, Or. huper, over — over, beyond, excess ; as, hypercritical, over-critical. 
HYPO, Gr. hupo, under — covert, below ; as, hypocrite, one who deceives, 
ICTHYO, Gr. ichthus—B. fish ; icthyology, the science of fishes ; icthyolite, fossil 

fish. 
IN, L. (often changed to im, ig, il, ir,) — not, when prefixed to adjectives ; in, on, 

when prefixed to verbs, &c, giving force to the signification 3 ignoble, not 

noble ; inseparable, not separable ; infix, to fix in, to fasten. 
INTER, L. — among, between; as, intermix, to mix among; interline, to put lines 

between. 
INFRA, L. — below ; as, ivframundane, lying below the world. 
INTRA, INTRO, L. — within, into, nearness ; as, introfoliaceous, growing on the 

under side of a leaf; introvert, to turn within or inward; introduce, to bring 

in or into. 
JURIS, L. jus, right — legal; as, jurisdiction, lawful right over ; jurisprudence , 

legal science. 
JUXTA, L. near by, next; as, juxtaposition, placed in near or close position. 
LEXICO, Or. lexicon — a dictionary ; lexicography, the act or art of writing or 

composing a dictionary. 
JL1THO, Or. lithos — a stone 5 lithology, science of stones; lithocarp, fruit turned 

to stone, fossil fruit. 



DERIVATION. 173 

MALE, L. malus, MAL, Fr. mal—evil, bad; as, malediction, evil speaking ; 

malformation, bad or wrong foundation. 
MAN 17, L. manus— the hand ; as, manufacture, something made by hand. 
MET A, Or. — beyond, over, next, a change ; as, metacarpus, beyond the wrist ; meta- 
morphose, to change into a different form. 
MIS, from miss, to err — bad, erroneous, wrong ; as, misplace, to rjlace wrong ; mis- 
fortune, bad fortune. 
MISO, MIS, Or. misos, hatred, or miseo, to hate — hater, or hatred', as, misogynist, 

a woman hater; misanthropy, hatred of mankind. 
MONO, MON, Or. monos — one, single ; as, monosyllable, a word of one syllable j 

monolith, a single stone ; monarchy, a government of one person. 
MULT, MULTI, L. multus — many; as , multiform, having many forms ; multiped, 

an insect of many feet. 
MYTHO, Gr. muthos — a fable ; as, mythographer, a composer of fables. 
NGCT, L. noctis — night; as, noctiferous, bringing night. 

NON, L. — not, negation; &s,nonelect, not elect j nonconforming, not conforming, 
NONA, L. nanus, — nine; as, nanagon, a figure of nine angles. 
OB, L. — before, hi front, against, toward, in the way, out ; as, object, that which is 
before us; objection, something brought against; obtrude, to thrust forward. 
B in ob, before c, /, and p, is changed to those letters respectively ; as, occur, 
offered, oppose : before t, it is changed to s ; as in ostensible. 
OCT, OCTO, OCTA, L. octo — eight ; as, octennial, once in eight years 3 octogena- 
rian, a person eighty years old ; octagon, a figure of eight angles. 
OMNI, L. omuls — all ; as, omniform, of all forms ; omnipotent, all powerful. 
ORN1THO, Gr* ornis—afowl, a bird; as 9 ornithology, the science of birds 3 ornith- 

olite, a petrified bird. 
OPHIO, Gr. ophis-^3. serpent ; ophiomorphous, having the form of a serpent. 
ORTHO, Or. orthos — straight, right; as, orthodoxy, the right or true faith; or- 
thoepy, the right utterance of words. 
OVER, S. ofcr-^above, beyond, excess ; as, overflow, to flow over or beyond; over- 
act, to act to excess. 
OUT, S. ut — beyond, excess, without ; as outdo, to do beyond another ; outdrink, to 

exceed in drinking, 
OV, OVI, OVU, L. ovum — an egg; as, oviform, having the form of an egg. 
OSTEO, Gr. osteon — a bone ; as, ostiology, description of bones. 
OXY, Gr. oxus, acid, sharp — acid, vinegar ; as, oxycrate, a mixture of vinegar and 

water ; oxygen, the generator of acid. 
PAN, PANTO^ Gr. pan, panta — all; a.s,pansophy, all wisdom ; pantology, a work 

of genera! science. 
PARA, Gr. — against, beyond ; as, paradox, beyond opinion, a seeming absurdity, 

parachute. 
PHYSICQ, PHYSIO, Or. phusis—nntttre, pertaining to nature ; as, physico-theolo- 

gy, theology illustrated by nature ; physiography , a description of nature. 
PENTA, PENTE, Gr.—five; as, pentarchy, a government of five persons ; pen- 
tahedron, a figure of five equal sides. 
PER, L. — through, by, over the whole ; as, pervade, to go through the whole; per 

annum, by the year. R is changed to I in pellucid. 
PERT, Gr. — around, near ; as pericardium, around the heart, the heartcase ; peri- 
pneumonia an inflammation near the lungs. 
PHIL, PHILO, Gr. philos — a friend, lover ; as, philanthropist, a friend of mankind 5 

philosopher, a lover of wisdom. 
PLENI, L. plenus—fall ; as, plenilune, the full moon. 
POLY, Gr. polus—many ; polynesia, many islands; polygon, many sides. 
POST, L. — after ; as, postscript, and after writing. 
PRE, L. — before; as, predetermine, to determine "beforehand. 
PRETER, L. prcstcr — beyond, past by, morje ; as., preternatural, beyond what is 

natural ; -pretermission, a passing by, or over. 
PRIME, PRIMO, L. primus— first ; as, primeval, first age ; primo genial, first born. 
PRO, L.— fore, forth, forward, for ; as, proceed, to go forward ; pronoun, for noun. 
PROTO, Gr. protos— first, chief; as, protomartyr, the first martyr 5 protopope, 

chief pope. 
PSEUDO, Gr. pseudos— false ; as, pseudomorphous, of false farm; pscudodox, false 

in doctrine. 
PYR, PYRO, Gr. pur— fire ; &s,pyrite, fire stone ; pyrotechnics, the art of making 

fire works. 
QUAD, L. quadra, a square ; &UART, L. quartus— four, fourth ; as, quadruple, 
four fold ; quarter, a fourth part, or to divide .into four parts. 

K2 



174 APPENDIX ETYMOLOGY, 

&U1NQ,UE, L.—fve ; as quinguecapsular, having five capsules. 

RE, L. — return, backward, again ; as, react, to return action ; recall, to call again? 

RETRO, L. — back ; as, retropulsive, driving back. 

SE, L. — separation, aside; as, secede, to separate from ; seduce, to turn aside. 

SELF, S. self, or sylf— the person or thing itself, by one's self; as, self -deceiving, 
deceiving one's self; self-devised, devised by one's self. 

SEPT, L. septem — seven; as, septenary, consisting of seven. 

SEX, L. — six; as, sezangular, having six angles." 

SEMI, L. — half; as, semicolumn, a half column ; semicolon, a half colon. 

SINE, L. — without, as, sine die, without day. 

SOLI, L. solus — alone j as, solitary, living or being alone, lonely. 

STENO, Gr. stenos — brief, short, straight; as, stenography, short-hand writing, 

STEREO, Gr. stereos— solid, fixed; as, stereotype, solid or fixed metal type; 
stereometry, the art of measuring solid bodies. 

SUB, L. — under, after, in a lower degree; as, subterranean, under the surface of 
the earth ; subaltern, a subordinate officer. B is changed to c, /, g, p, s, be- 
fore these letters respectively. 

SUBTER, L. — under, evasion; as, subierfluent, running under ; subterfuge. 

SYN, SYL, SYM, SY, Gr. sun, with — with, joined with, joint; as, synarchy, joint 
rule ; sympathy, feeling with, fellow feeling, 

SUPER, L. — over, above, excess ; as, superreward, to reward to excess. 

SUPRA, L. — above, over ; as, supraciliary , above the eyebrow. 

SUR, Fr. sur, from L. supra, which see — as, surpass, to pass over, or to excel. 

TETRA, Gr. tettares—four ; as, tetragon, a figure of four angles. 

THEO, Gr. theos—God ; as, theology, the science of God, divinity. 

TOPO, Gr. topos—a place, a tract ; as, topography, a description of any particular 
place or region. 

TRANS, L. beyond, over, a change ; as, transalpine, beyond the Alps; transmute, 
to change from one thing to another. 

TRI, L. tres, Gr. treis — threz; as, trifoliate, having three leaves. 

TYPO, Gr. tupos, a type — a mark, type, figure ; as, topography, writing with type?, 
art of printing ; typocosmy, a type or representation of the word. 

ULTRA, L. — beyond; as, ultramundane, being beyond the world. 

UN, S. un or an — L. in — not, depriving ; as, unknown, not known ; unload, to de- 
prive of load. 

UNDER, S. — beneath, subordinate ; as, underrate, to rate too low ; underkeeper, a 
subordinate keeper. 

UNI, L. unus — one, agreement; as, univalve, having one valve; univocation, 
agreement in name and meaning. 

UP, S. up, upp — aloft, on high, rising ; as, upbear, to bear aloft ; uprear, to raise up. 

WITH, S. with— privation, separation,, opposition, departure; as, withdraw, to sep- 
arate, retire ; withstand, to oppose. 

ZOO, Gr. zoon— an animal ; as, zoolite, a fossil animal ; zoography, a description 
of animals. 

Note. From the foregoing derivations and significations of the Prefixes, much 
help will be derived in tracing out the meaning of words. The Suffixes are more 
uncertain in their origin, and their significations are often so various and extend- 
ed, that it would be impossible to give them all. A general clue is given to them 
in the following selections, and perhaps all is accomplished therein, that it would 
be wise or useful to attempt. For a clear apprehension of the origin and defini- 
tions of many words, resort must be had to a full and correct dictionary. 



SUFFIXES. 

§107. A Suffix is a letter, syllable, or whatever is appended to 
the end of a word, which in any manner varies or modifies its 
meaning. 

Origin of some of the Suffixes. 

ABLE, IBLE, are probably from the i some derive them from the Gothic 
Latin, where they are comom ; though j abal, meaning power, ability. 



DERIVATION. 



175 



AGE, is from the French. 

AL, from the Latin, denoting quality. 

AN, from the French and Latin. 

ANT, ANCE, ANCY, ENT, ENCE, 
ENCY. These terminations are from 
the present participle, first case of 
Latin verbs,' in the different conjuga- 
tions ; as, from abundans, we have 
abundant, abundance ; from agens, 
agent, agency. 

AR, EK, OR, are from the Saxon zcer, 
or Latin vir, a man. They usually 
denote the masculine gender, but 
sometimes either sex ; as, teacher ; and 
sometimes things without gender 5 as, 
graver, lever. 

ARD, is from the German art, species, 
kind ; or Swedish and Danish art, 
mode, nature, genus, form. 

ATE, from the Latin passive participle 
atus. It agrees precisely in form with 
the termination of the second person 
plural, imperative mood, of Latin 
verbs, first conjugation ; as, amate. 
This is the termination of a very 
numerous class of words, a large por- 
tion of which is from the Latin. 

AN, EN. The former of these is from 
the Saxon ; the latter more immedi- 
ately from the German. 

CIDE, from the Latin cidium, from ccedo. 

DOM, some think from the German 
thum, denoting a collection of things ; 
others think is from the Saxon dom, 
doom, judgement. 

ESS, is thought to be from the Hebrew. 

FIC, FIT, FY. These terminations have 
a common origin, and are derived 
from the Latin facio, or Jio, to make, 
become. 

FOLD, from the Saxon fold ot feald, 
denoting doubling. 

FORM, from the Latin forma, form, 
shape. 

FUL, from the Saxon full, or German 
voll. 

HOOD, from Saxon had, state, fixed- 
ness ; from a root signifying to set. 

IC, ICO, from the Latin ic, Saxon ig. 



ID, from the Greek eidos, like ILE, from 
the Latin, denoting power, tendency. 

ISH, from German tech, Danish is'k, 
Saxon isc, denoting likeness, or ex- 
pressing the qualities of. 

ING, perhaps from the German ung. Ing 
in Saxon signifies a pasture or meadow . 

ISM, 1ST, 1ZE, from the Greek wo. 

I VE, from the French if, ive ; Latin ivus. 

IX, is a Latin termination, denoting a 
female. 

LESS, from the Saxon laes, from laesan, 
to loose 3 Gothic laus, from lausyan to 
free. 

LIKE, LY, from the Saxon lie, Dutch 
lyk, smooth, even, like. 

LING, is a Saxon termination, deno- 
ting primarily, state, condition. In 
some words it denotes a small one of 
any kind. 

LOCK, Saxon loc, loce, an inclosed 
place, a fastening. 

KIN, from the Saxon cyn, cynn, or cind, 
kind, race, relation ; German kind, a 
child. 

MENT, is from the French, and de- 
notes slate, act, or effect. 

MONY, is a contraction of the Latin ter- 
mination monia,&Y\d denotes state,act. 

NESS, from the Saxon nesse, nysse, 
state or quality. 

OID, from the Greek eidos, like, similar. 

OR Y, contraction of the Latin termina- 
tion oria. 

OUS, Latin osus; French eux, euse. 

RIC, RICK, from the Saxon ric. judge- 
ment, authority, territory with rule j 
from the root of the Latin rego, to rule. 

SION, TION, are from the Latin ter- 
minations, sio, do. When the Latin 
supine from which the word is derived 
ends in sum, we spell sion; when in 
turn, we spell tion; as, aversum, aver- 
sion ; motum, motion. 

SOME, Saxon sum, sume. 

TY, is the Saxon tig, ten ; as, twenty, 
two tens ; thirty, three tens. 

Ty, as a suffix of nouns, is the Latin 
termination tas. 

Y, is the Saxon ig ; Greek eikos, like. 



Explanation of the Suffixes. 



§ 1 08. The general meaning only of the Suffixes in this section 
is given ; as it would be next to an endless task to present with 
appropriate illustrations, all the significations, which custom and 
place have introduced. The Suffixes here defined, modify the 
meaning of some thirty or forty thousand words. [See Note at the 
end of section on Prefixes.] 



ABLE, IBLE, BLE, imply power, pri- 
marily, and may be rendered by the 
expressions, that may be, can be, capa- 
ble of, fit, agreeable ; as, attainable, 



that can be attained ; palatable, agreea- 
ble to the palate. 
ABILITY, IBILITY, ABLENESS, I- 
BLENESS, denote the quality or prop- 



176 



APPENDIX ETYMOLOGY. 



erty, capacity or state of being, that may 
be, or is susceptible of: as, incommen- 
surability, the properly or state of be- 
ing incommensurable j blamableness , 
the quality or property of blame, or 
state of being blamable. 
ANOE, ANCY, ENCE, ENCY, denote 
state or condition of, act of, result of; 
dependency, the state or condition of, 
as being dependent 3 contrivance, the 
act of contriving. 
ANT, ENT, ATE, person or thing ; as, 
resident, a person who resides. In 
adjectives they generally denote pow- 
er or quality ; as, excellent, having the 
property of excelling. 
AC, AL, AR, ARY, IC, ICAL, ILE, 
INE, CIAL, T1AL, denote U/ce, per- 
taining to, belonging to ; as, humeral, 
pertaining to the shoulder; commer- 
cial, belonging to commerce 3 demo- 
niac, like a demon. 
AR, ARY, ARD, STER, often imply 
the person or thing 3 as, luminary, that 
which gives light 3 drunkard, the per- 
son who gets drunk 3 teamster, one 
who teams. 
AN, IAN, CIAN, AST, OR, ER, ESS, 
EE, EER, 1ST, 1TE, IC, IX, SAN, 
ZEN, imply the person who, in nouns, 
as ; physician, enthusiast, tailor, min- 
ister, referee, administratrix, denizen. 
Re, denotes one of a nation or tribe 3 
as, Levite; ist, of a sect 3 as, papist, 
rationalist. 
ATION, TION, SION, ION, the act of, 
state of; as, admission,, the act or state 
of being admitted 3 union, the state of 
being united. 
AGE, denotes rank, office, condition, al- 
lowance 5 as, peerage, the rank or con- 
dition of a peer ; postage, an allow- 
ance on letters, papers, &c. carried by 
mail. 
EN, TY, FIT, FIC, as terminations of 
verbs and adjectives, mean to make or 
become, or made of; as, brighten, to 
make bright ; hempen, made of hemp 3 
ossify, to become stone. 
FOLD, denotes double j as, four-fold, 

four double. 
FORM, denotes shape, likeness; as, 
multiform,, having many shapes 5 cuni- 
form, having the form of a wedge, or 
like a wedge. 
FUL, denotes plenty, fullness, or it ex- 
presses the quality of the mind, a per- 
son or thing 3 as, wonderful, cheerful, 
hateful. 
DOM, RIC, denote jurisdiction, posses- 
sion by ; as, kingdom, bishopric. 
HOOD, denotes state, condition, office, 
quality ; as, boyhood, the state of a boy 3 
priesthood, the office of a priest. 
FEROUS, means causing , inducing ; as, 

somniferous, producing sleep. 
ICS, denotes science, doctrine or art of; 
as, politics, the science of government, 
antics, the science of visiou. 



IVE, as a termination of adjectives, im- 
plies tendency or relation to, or the 
power or nature of; as, intrusive, tend- 
ing to intrude ; adhesive, having the 
power or quality of adhering. 
ISM, implies the principles, doctrine or 
state of, or what is peculiar to 3 as, 
Catholicism, the doctrines of a catho- 
lic 3 blackguardism, conduct or lan- 
guage peculiar to a blackguard. 
IZE, signifies to give, to make 3 as, au- 
thorize, to give authority 3 equalize, to 
make equal. 
ISH, means, like in a degree, belonging 
to ', as, brutish, in some degree like a 
brute ; saltish, somewhat salt; child- 
ish, like a child, or belonging to a 
child. 
ITY, CY, T Y, as terminations of nouns, 
mean condition, state, or thing itself, 
quality, or power of; as, humility, the 
state of being humble 3 vitality, the 
quality of life. 
KIN, LING, ULE, CLE, imply what 
is small, little, young ; as, gosling, 
lambkin, molecule, versicle. 
LESS, destitute of, without; as, mother- 
less, without mother; hopeless, with- 
out hope. 
LY, means like; as, godly, godlike j 

manly, manlike. 
MENT, denotes state, act, or effect 3 as, 
debasement, the state of being debased 3 
judgement, the act or effect of judging. 
MON Y, means state, act 5 as, matri- 
mony, the married state 3 testimony, 
the act of witnessing. 
LOCK, denotes union, or what fastens 3 

as, wedlock, padlock. 
NESS, denotes the quality; as, sound- 
ness, the abstract quality of being 
sound j redness, the quality of being 
red. 
OID, means like, resembling, in the form 
of; as, spheroid, like a sphere 3 aster- 
oid, in the form of a star. 
OUS, implies quality, and means par- 
taking of, manifesting, having 3 as, 
piteous, having or manifesting pity 3 
cautious, having caution. 
ORY, denotes giving, containing, tend- 
ing to j as, advisory, giving or con- 
taining advice ; inflammatory, tending 
to inflammation. 
RET, in Chimistry, denotes a sub- 
stance combined with an earthy, alka- 
line, or metalic base ; as, sulphuret, 
from sulphur. 
SHIP, denotes office, state, employment ; 
as, mayorship, lordship, consulship, stew- 
ardship. 
SOME, having a degree of , full of; as, 

frolicksome, troublesome, toilsome. 
TUDE, UDE, denote state 3 as, solitude, 
the state of being alone ; gratitude, 
the state or feeling of being grateful. 
TURE, URE, denote act, statc,artof; 
as, adventure, the act of adventuring j 
horticulture, the art of gardening. 



GLOSSARY. 



[ L. stands for Latin j Gr. for Greek ; Fr. for French ; It. for Italian, and S. 

for Saxon. ] 



ACTIVE, [Fr. actif ,• L. activus."] 
Denoting or implying action, in 
contradistinction from a state of re- 
pose or rest. An active verb is a 
verb which expresses action. 

ADJECTIVE, [Fr. adjectif, from L. 
ad, to, next, and jaceo, to lie.] A 
word joined with a noun to define 
it, or to express some quality which 
belongs to it. 

ADVERB, [L. ad, to, and verbum, a 
word or verb 5 to a verb.] A word 
which qualifies or modifies the sense 
of verbs and some other parts of 
speech, and is so called from its 
position in relation to them. 

CASE, [Fr. cas, event, situation 3 It. 
caso ; L. casus, from cado, to fall.] 
In English, the relation or situation 
of nouns in reference to other 
words in the same sentence. In 
some languages, as the Greek and 
Latin, it denotes the change of ter- 
mination, or the inflection of nouns 
which expresses their different re- 
lations. 

COLON, [Gr. xtnXovj a limb, a mem- 
ber of a sentence.] The point or 
stop marked thus (:) It seems to 
have been thus called, from its use 
in separating the important mem- 
bers of a compound sentence. 

COMMA, [Gr. xopfia, a piece cut 
off, a slice, from xonrm, to cut off] 
The point marked thus (,) and prob- 
ably so called, from its separating, 



or cutting off, the smaller parts of a 
sentence, from the main body. 

COMPARISON, [Fr. comparaison, 
resemblance, comparison 5 L. com- 
paratio,] The formation of an ad- 
jective to express its various de- 
grees of signification, by means of 
different terminations, or words pre- 
fixed to them. 

CONSONANT, [L, consonans, from 
con, with, and sono, to sound.] A 
letter so called because it has no 
sound except as united with a vow- 
el, or which is never pronounced 
but in connection with a vowel 
sound; 

CONJUGATION, [ L. conjugatio, 
from con, and jugo, to yoke, or join 
together.] A regular arrangement 
or distribution of the verb, accord- 
ing to the variation of its various 
moods, tenses, numbers and per- 
sons; 

CONJUNCTION, [ L. conjunct™, 
from con, with, together, andjungo, 
to join, to unite together.] A word 
which connects or unites together 
other words or sentences. 

DECLENSION, [ L. declinaiio, 
from de and clino, to lean.] The 
declining or deviation of the ter- 
mination of a word from the ter- 
mination of the nominative case ; 
the regular arrangement of a noun 
according to its cases or termina- 
tions. 



178 



GLOSSARY. 



DERIVATION, [L. derivatio, from 
de and rivus, a stream 5 to trace 
from, to derive.] The tracing of a 
word from its root, or source, so as 
to discover its origin. 
DIPHTHONG, [ Gr. dup&oyyog, 
from dig, double, twice, and cp&oy- 
yog, sound 5 a double sound.] The 
union of two vowel sounds in one, 
or two vowels pronounced in one 
syllable. 

ETYMOLOGY, [Gr. mpb*i true, 
and Xoyog, discourse.] That part 
of Grammar which treats of the 
classification and properties of 
words, and their derivation. 

FEMININE, [ L. femininus, from 
femina, a woman, a female.] Be- 
longing to a female. It is applied 
to words which are the names of 
animals of the female kind, and de- 
notes the female sex. 

FUTURE, [L.futurus, that will be : 
Fr.futur.] That is to come here- 
after. Future Tense is the name of 
that form or variation of the verb, 
which represents an action or event 
not as past or present, but to come. 

GENDER, [Fr. genre, kind; h. ge- 
nus.'] The distinction of sex ex- 
pressed by different words, or by 
a different termination of the same 
word. In English, nouns are vari- 
ed in respect to gender, only to ex- 
press sex ; hence, as there are but 
two sexes, there can be but two 
genders. 

GRAMMAR, [Gr. yoauuaTixt], from 
yQocuuct, a letter, literature, gram- 
matical rules.] As a science, gram- 
mar treats of the connection be- 
tween ideas and words, and the 
principles of language. As an art, 
it is the practice of speaking or 
writing language, in accordance 
with its true principles and correct 
usage. 

IMPERATIVE, [L. imperativus , 
from impero, to command; Fr. im- 
peratif.] The imperative mood is 
that form of the verb which expres- 
ses command, entreaty, exhorta- 
tion, permission. 

INACTIVE, [L. in, not, and active.] 
Designates those verbs which im- 
ply state, condition, or existence 
without action. 



INDICATIVE, [L. indicatives, from 
indico, from in and dico, to speak, 
show, or declare.] Indicating or 
declaring. The indicative mood is 
the name of that form of the verb 
which indicates or declares, affirms 
or denies. 

INFINITIVE, [L. infinitus, infinite, 
indefinite 5 Fr. infinitif.] Unlimit- 
ed. The infinitive mood denotes 
that form of the verb which is not 
limited by number or person, or 
which has no subject. 

INTERJECTION, [L. interjectio, 
from inter, between, and ji'cio, to 
throw.] A word thrown in be- 
tween other words grammatically 
connected, to express some sudden 
emotion or passion. 

INTRANSITIVE, [L. intransitivus , 
from in, not, and transeo, to pass 
over.] Not passing over. It is 
applied to that class of active verbs 
whose action is limited to the agent, 
and which consequently do not take 
after them an object. 

LANGUAGE, [FvUangage, from L. 
lingua, the tongue, speech.] Hu- 
man speech, which consists of sym- 
bols, either articulate sounds or 
written words, for the expression 
of our thoughts or ideas. 

LETTER, [Fr. lettre ; It. lettera.] 
A mark or character, which is the 
representative of an articulate 
sound. A letter is the first element 
of 'written language, and the sound 
which it represents, the first ele- 
ment of spoken language. 

MASCULINE. [L. masculinus, from 
mas, a male 3 Fr. masculin.] Of 
Ihe male kind. The masculine gen- 
der is applied to that word, or that 
form of a word, which is appropri- 
ated to the names of males, or ani- 
mals of the male kind. 

MOOD or MODE, [Fr. mode ; L. 
modus, manner.] The manner of 
conjugating verbs to express a dif- 
ferent manner of action or being. 

NOMINATIVE, [ L. nominativus f 
from nomino, to name, from nomen 
name.] Naming, or of a name' 
The nominative case is the firs t 
case, and denotes the subject 
which is usually the agent, or ac! 
tor. In passive verbs the subjec t 



GLOSSARY. 



179 



or nominative case becomes the 
person, or thing acted upon; 

NOUN, [corruption of the L. nomen, 
a name.] That by which any thing 
is known or called. The name of 
a person, thing, or conception. 

NUMBER, [Fr. nombre; L. nume- 
rus.] The form or termination of 
a noun, to express one, or more 
than one. 

ORTHOGRAPHY, [Gr. oofoyQa- 
(pia, from o$&og } right, and Y9 ac P*li 
writing, from yQacpw, to write.] 
The art of writing words with their 
proper letters. Hence, it treats of 
letters, syllables and words, so far 
as their nature and formation are 
concerned. 

ORTHOEPY, [Gr. o^oervsia, from 
oo&og, right, and f/TO?, word, or 
£>tw, 10 speak.] The art of 

speaking or pronouncing words 
correctly or wiih propriety. 

OBJECTIVE, [Fr. obfectif; L. ob- 
jectus, from ob and jicio, to throw 
against, or in the way of.] Be- 
longing to the object. The objec- 
tive case denotes the object of an 
action or relation, and therefore, 
follows a verb or its participle, or 
a preposition. 

PARTICIPLE, [L. participium, 
from particeps ; pars, a part, and 
capio, to take,] A word which par- 
takes of the properties of two parts 
of speech, as of the noun and verb, 
or adjective and verb. 

PASSIVE, [Fr. passif; L. passivus, 
from passas, suffering, patior, to 
suffer.] Suffering, or receiving ac- 
tion. A passive verb denotes the 
form of a verb, or is the form of a 
verb to express the action of some 
agent, received. 

PAST, [perfect participle of the verb 
to pass.] Gone by, taken place ; 
neither present nor to come. The 
past tense is that form of a verb 
which represents an action as hav- 
ing taken place, or a state, event, 
or fact, as having existed in time 
gone by. 

PAUSE, [Fr. pause; Gr. Ilavoig, 
from ITavu)) to cease, to rest.] A 
stop, a cessation ; a rest in read- 
ing or speaking. 

PERFECT, [L. perfectus, from per- 
Jicio ; per, through, facto, to do or 



make 3 to carry through, to finish,] 
Finished, complete. The perfect 
tense is that form of the verb which 
represents an act or event of past 
time, not as going on in some time 
past, but completed 5 and this act 
or event is always in some way as- 
sociated with present time. 

PERIOD, [Latin periodus ; Greek 
rvsOLoSog, from ttsql, about, and 
odog, the way.] The point marked 
thus (.), which denotes the end of a 
full sentence, or a complete stop. 

PERSON, [h. persona, thought to be 
from per, through, and sonus, a 
soHnd ; a word which originally 
signified a mask worn by actors.] 
The distinction of the individuals 
speaking, spoken to, or spoken of, 
in discourse. 

POSSESSIVE, [L.possessivus,pos- 
sessus,possideo, to possess, to own ] 
Having possession, or pertaining to 
possession. The possessive case is 
that form of a noun which denotes 
property, possession, or relation. 

POTENTIAL, [L. potentialis, from 
potens, from possum, to be able.] 
Having power or ability. The po- 
tential mood is the name given to 
that form of the verb which expres- 
ses possibility, liberty, power, will, 
obligation. 

PREDICATE, [L. pradico, to af- 
firm.] That which is affirmed or 
denied of the subject. A finite 
verb either alone, or in connection 
with its modifying words. 

PREPOSITION, 5 [L. prcBpositio, 
from prcs, before, and pono, to put 
or place.] A word standing before 
another, to express some relation, 
action, or quality concerning it. 

PRESENT, [Fr. present ; L. pra- 
sens, from prcB and sum, esse, to 
be.] Pertaining to that which is 
now. The present tense denotes 
that form of the verb which expres- 
ses action or being in the present 
time. 

PRIOR, [L. prior, former, before.] 
Applied to verbs, prior means be- 
fore in point of time. The prior 
past tense is the form of a verb to 
express an action or event, which 
took place before, or prior lo, some 
other past action, event, or time. 
The prior future tense is the form 



180 



GLOSSARY. 



of a verb to express an action that 
will take place before, or prior to, 
some future time specified. 

PRONOUN, [L. pro, for, and noun.] 
A word which stands in the place 
of a noun, or for a noun. 

PROSODY, [Fr. prosodie ; L. pros- 
odia; Gr. rcoooodta ; from Tc^og, 
and cotfg, an ode.] That part of 
grammar which treats of pronun- 
ciation and the laws of versifica- 
tion. 

PUNCTUATION, [L. punctum, a 
point.] The art of pointing, or 
marking with proper points, writ- 
ten discourse. 

PRONUNCIATION, [Fr. pronun- 
ciation; L. pronunciation The art 
or act of uttering words or senten- 
ces correctly. 

QUANTITY, [Fr. quantite ; It. 
quantita; from L. quantitas, how 
much.] The measure of a syllable, 
or the relative time of pronouncing: it 

SEMICOLON, [L. semi, half, and 
colon; a half colon.] The point 
marked thus (;), and of half the du- 
ration of the colon; 

SPEECH, [L. spcBc, from spcecan, 
to speak.] The power or act of 
uttering articulate sounds. 

SENTENCE, [Fr. sentence, from L. 
sententia, from sentio, to think.] 
A number of words so arranged as 
to make complete sense. 

SPELLING, [S. spellian, to tell, 
to discourse 5 Danish spellen, to 
spell.] The naming or writing 
of the letters of a word 5 the form- 
ing of words with their proper let- 
ters. 

SUBJECT, [Fr. sujet ; L. subjectus.] 
The nominative case to a verb. 
That of which something is affirm- 
ed or spoken. 

SUBJUNCTIVE, [Fr. suhjunctif; 
L. subjunctivus, from subjungo, to 
subjoin, or add.] Subjoined or ad- 
ded to something before said or 
written. The subjunctive mood de- 
notes the form of a verb which fol- 
lows other verbs, and implies 
doubt, contingency, hypothesis: 

SUBSTANTIVE, [L. sub, and sto, 
to stand 5 to stand for.] That 



which stands for any person, thing, 
or conception 5 the same as name, 
or noun. 

SYLLABLE, [Latin syllaba; Greek 
ovXXapij, a taking together.] A 
letter or several letters uttered by 
a single impulse of the voice. 

SYNTAX, [Latin sijntaxis ; Greek 
awra^ig ; from avv, together, and 
vaoow, to put.] The construction 
of sentences by a correct arrange- 
ment of words according to the 
principles of language and author- 
ized usage. 

TONE, [Fr. ton; L. tonus; Gr. 
rovog, a sound 5 from roroco, to 
sound.] The peculiar sounds or 
inflections of the voice in reading 
or speaking. 

TENSE, [corruption of Fr. temps ; 
L. tempus, time.] A form of the 
verb, to express the time of an ac- 
tion, event, or fact. 

TRANSITIVE, [L. transitus, from 
transeo, from trans, over, beyond, 
and eo, to pass.] Passing over, or 
having the power of passing over. 
Transitive verbs are those whose 
action passes over to some object, 
or terminates on some object ex- 
pressed or evidently implied. 

TRIPHTHONG, [Gr. rang, three, 
and (p-doyyog, sound.] Three vow- 
els united in one sound. 

VERB, [L. verbum, a word ; so call- 
ed by way of eminence, it beiBg 
the chief word in the sentence.] 
That part of speech which expres- 
ses action, being, or state. 

VERSIFICATION, [Fr, versifica- 
tion, the making of verses 5 from 
versifier, to versify.] The art or 
act of composing poetic verse. 

VOWEL, [Fr. voyelle; L. vocalis, 
from voco, to call.] A simple 
sound, as that of a, o f u. A sound 
formed by opening the mouth, with- 
out any other modulation. 

WORD, [S, word, or tvyrd.] A vo- 
cal or articulate sound, which is 
the representation of an idea > the 
letters which stand for such a 
sound. 



THE END. 



v > * ^ w °< 




s 



^ 



V 






A •^ s Mis \W^<~ 









,*<fe 




the Bookkeeper procei 
it: Maanesium Oxide 



Deacidified using the Bookkeepe 
&■ /y * Neutralizing agent: Magnesium ( 
Treatment Date: Oct. 2006 

PreservationTechnologie 

A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATIC 

1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive 



A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVA1 

1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive 
Cranberry Township, PA 16066 
(724)779-2111 











^ 


v 


* 8 


1 t * 






















, ^ 








% 




■■>■%* 








^ v 


'^ 



<-. 



<r ^ 







^ V 






^ ^ 




.-V 5 <s 



, ^n0>)% - %% A^ 













,0^ 




: ^.#" : 
















& 



!S yoFcow <* E s S 




003 238 287 3 




II 



n 



m 



fiftf Jfl 

m 



Hi ISllSfiH 

flic i Hilii Hi! f t UtUmfifis 

ill iH 







i 

IliilH 

T™ iff™! 



Wi 

■ 1 1 IS 



\m 



